James Robert Rudd

• Sum, Kim Wai Raymond; Sit, Cindy Hui-Ping; Rudd, James Robert; Chow, Jia Yi & Zhang, Xiao Fei (2024). An ecological dynamics approach to promote physical literacy and well-being of primary school children: a cluster randomised controlled trial study protocol. BMJ Open. ISSN 2044-6055. 14(6). doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-088312.
• Terlizzi, B.M.; Hulteen, R.M.; Rudd, James Robert; Sacko, R.S.; Sgrò, F. & Jaakkola, T. [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2024). A pre-longitudinal screen of performance in an integrated assessment of throwing and catching competence. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. ISSN 1740-8989. p. 1–13. doi: 10.1080/17408989.2024.2335147.
• Fitton Davies, Davies; Clarke, S.; Martins, R.; Rudd, James Robert & Duncan, M. (2024). The effect of a home-based, gamified stability skills intervention on 4-5-year-old children's physical and cognitive outcomes: A pilot study. Psychology of Sport And Exercise. ISSN 1469-0292. 73. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102636.
• O'Callaghan, Laura; Foweather, Lawrence; Crotti, Matteo; Oppici, Luca; Pesce, Caterina & Boddy, Lynne [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Associations of physical activity dose and movement quality with executive functions in socioeconomically disadvantaged children aged 5–6 years. Psychology of Sport And Exercise. ISSN 1469-0292. 70. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102546. Show summary

  Background: Growing up in areas of high deprivation can negatively impact children's movement behaviours and cognitive development. Enhancing the quantity and quality of children's movement experiences is believed to enhance cognitive development. This study investigated the association of three different modes of movement assessment, movement proficiency and divergent movement ability (collectively understood as motor competence) and PA dose with executive function in a low socio-economic demographic. Demographics, motor competence, and a combination of motor competence and physical activity were hypothesized to be significantly predictor of executive functions. Method: In this cross-sectional study, 360 children aged 5–6 years from deprived areas were assessed using three movement assessments: wrist-worn accelerometery for physical activity dose, Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for movement proficiency, and divergent movement assessment. Executive function, including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, was measured using the NIH Toolbox on an iPad. Multiple linear regression models were designed to evaluate the independent and combined association of demographics, movement competence and physical activity variables with executive function. Results: The regression analysis, with demographic factors only, explained 12% of EF variance (r2 = 0.12 95%CI 0.06–0.18). In addition to this demographics the model with divergent movement explained 19% of EF variance (r2 = 0.19 95% CI = 0.12–0.28), the model with movement proficiency explained 16% of EF variance (r2 = 0.16 95% CI = 0.08–0.26) and the model with PA dose explained 13% of EF variance (r2 = 0.13 95% CI = 0.07–0.20). In these models both divergent movement and proficiency were significant predictors, whilst physical activity variables were not. The final models, combining motor competence and physical activity variables, explained 24% and 23% of EF variance (r2 = 0.24 CI = 0.14–0.33 and r2 = 0.23 CI = 0.14–0.32). In these models, motor competence variables were significant predictors, and only vigorous physical activity and Euclidean Norm Minus One emerged as significant PA dose predictors. Discussion: These findings emphasise that motor competence and physical activity variables better predict executive functions when they are combined. When considered individually both motor competence variables were significant predictors of executive function whilst physical activity variables were not. Importantly, among the two movement competence facets, divergent movement assessment exhibited the strongest association with executive function. Future interventions should consider how to facilitate both movement and cognitive development in children. Future interventions should consider both the interplay of movement quality and quantity and the importance of environments that invite children’s exploratory movement behavior.

• Taylor, Sarah L; Downs, Samantha J; Rudd, James Robert; McGrane, Bronagh; Melville, Craig A & McGarty, Arlene M [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Associations between motor competence and physical activity levels of children with intellectual disabilities and/or autism spectrum disorder: Movement matters. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities. ISSN 1744-6295. doi: 10.1177/17446295231203764. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Motor competence is important for lifelong physical activity (PA). The current study aimed to examine associations between PA and motor competence. In total, 43 children aged 7–12 years with intellectual disabilities and/or autism spectrum disorder completed anthropometric measures, the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2, and wore a wrist accelerometer to capture total PA, moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), average acceleration, and intensity gradient. No significant associations were found between PA outcomes and motor competence. Motor competence performance was commonly ‘below average’ or ‘average’. The weakest subtests were upper limb coordination and strength. The strongest subtest was running speed and agility. Total weekly MVPA was 336.1 ± 150.3 min, higher than UK recommendations of 120-180 per week for disabled children and young people. Larger scale studies are needed to better understand the relationship between PA and motor competence. Future research should also consider the influence of environmental factors on PA in this group.

• Magill, Ceriann; Cronin, Colum; Walsh, Barbara; Polman, Remco & Rudd, James Robert (2023). Teaching efficacy of undergraduate PE students; what are the key predictors and what can PE educators learn from this? Frontiers in Education. ISSN 2504-284X. 8. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1166613. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction: Teaching efficacy describes the belief in a teacher's ability to promote learning and this belief is an invaluable asset for all teachers. This study examined the contextual influences that predict the teaching efficacy of first-year undergraduate PE students wishing to enter teacher training programs. Method: Using a mixed methods study design, 168 PE students completed an online questionnaire and 16 of these participants took part in semi-structured focus groups. The data collection procedures investigated students' perceptions of PE teaching efficacy and examined students' awareness of how their involvement in PE or sports influenced their decision to study PE. Results: Teaching experiences and role model influences were the key predictors of students' perceived PE teaching efficacy. Discussions: We recommend that higher education PE programs should facilitate theoretically informed reflective learning opportunities to enable students to understand and make sense of the impact of these key predictors. These opportunities will enable students to understand their starting point in PE teaching efficacy and identify the requirements to develop it. The study extends the existing literature by identifying the key predictors of PE teaching efficacy derived from the acculturation experiences of undergraduate PE students.

• Wilkie, Brett; Jordan, Alastair; Foulkes, Jonathan; Woods, Carl T.; Davids, Keith & Rudd, James Robert (2023). Examining the validity, reliability and feasibility of capturing children's physical literacy through games-based assessment in physical education. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. ISSN 2624-9367. 5. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1188364. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Observational tools can help refine practice design and guide the creation of effective learning environments. The intention of this study was to design and validate an observational instrument for assessing physical literacy that remains more faithful to the philosophically complex and holistic nature of the concept. Methods: Framed by concepts of ecological dynamics, the emergent games-based assessment tool enables capture of children's interactions with their environment, providing insight on the manifestation of physical literacy within physical education games. The design and validation of the instrument consisted of a multistage process: (1) design of the observational instrument and establishing face validity; (2) pilot observation study; (3) expert qualitative and quantitative review to establish content validity; (4) observation training; and (5), establishing observer reliability. Results: Following expert qualitative and quantitative evaluation, Aiken's V coefficient was used to determine content validity. Results achieved demanding levels of validity (V ≥ 0.78) for all retained measurement variables. Cohen's κ values for inter- and intra-observer reliability ranged from 0.331 to 1.00 and 0.552 to 1.00, generally reporting “substantial” agreement during inter-observer analysis and “substantial” to “almost perfect” agreement during intra-observer analysis. Conclusions: The final model of the emergent games-based assessment tool, with 9 ecological conceptualisations of behaviour, 15 measurement variables, and 44 categorical observational items was found to be valid and reliable, providing both educators and researchers with a useful mechanism to assess physical literacy during gameplay.

• Fairclough, Stuart J.; Rowlands, Alex V.; del Pozo Cruz, Borja; Crotti, Matteo; Foweather, Lawrence & Graves, Lee E. F. [Show all 17 contributors for this article] (2023). Reference values for wrist-worn accelerometer physical activity metrics in England children and adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. ISSN 1479-5868. 20. doi: 10.1186/s12966-023-01435-z. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Over the last decade use of raw acceleration metrics to assess physical activity has increased. Metrics such as Euclidean Norm Minus One (ENMO), and Mean Amplitude Deviation (MAD) can be used to generate metrics which describe physical activity volume (average acceleration), intensity distribution (intensity gradient), and intensity of the most active periods (MX metrics) of the day. Presently, relatively little comparative data for these metrics exists in youth. To address this need, this study presents age- and sex-specific reference percentile values in England youth and compares physical activity volume and intensity profiles by age and sex. Methods: Wrist-worn accelerometer data from 10 studies involving youth aged 5 to 15 y were pooled. Weekday and weekend waking hours were first calculated for youth in school Years (Y) 1&2, Y4&5, Y6&7, and Y8&9 to determine waking hours durations by age-groups and day types. A valid waking hours day was defined as accelerometer wear for ≥ 600 min·d−1 and participants with ≥ 3 valid weekdays and ≥ 1 valid weekend day were included. Mean ENMO- and MAD-generated average acceleration, intensity gradient, and MX metrics were calculated and summarised as weighted week averages. Sex-specific smoothed percentile curves were generated for each metric using Generalized Additive Models for Location Scale and Shape. Linear mixed models examined age and sex differences. Results: The analytical sample included 1250 participants. Physical activity peaked between ages 6.5–10.5 y, depending on metric. For all metrics the highest activity levels occurred in less active participants (3rd-50th percentile) and girls, 0.5 to 1.5 y earlier than more active peers, and boys, respectively. Irrespective of metric, boys were more active than girls (p < .001) and physical activity was lowest in the Y8&9 group, particularly when compared to the Y1&2 group (p < .001). Conclusions: Percentile reference values for average acceleration, intensity gradient, and MX metrics have utility in describing age- and sex-specific values for physical activity volume and intensity in youth. There is a need to generate nationally-representative wrist-acceleration population-referenced norms for these metrics to further facilitate health-related physical activity research and promotion.

• Oppici, Luca; Stell, Frederike Marie; Utesch, Till; Woods, Carl T.; Foweather, Lawrence & Rudd, James Robert (2022). A Skill Acquisition Perspective on the Impact of Exergaming Technology on Foundational Movement Skill Development in Children 3–12 Years: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Medicine - Open. ISSN 2198-9761. 8. doi: 10.1186/s40798-022-00534-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Sedentary, digital screen time in children represents a major concern due to its detrimental effect on children’s development. Nowadays, however, advances in technology allow children to actively interact with a digital screen using their whole body (e.g., exergaming), providing potential for movement learning. Exergaming technology may prove valuable in supporting children’s development of foundational movement skills (FMS). Objective: To examine the impact of exergaming technology on the development of FMS in children 3–12 years through a skill acquisition lens. Methods: Systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Web of Science, PubMed, PsycINFO and SPORTDiscus databases were searched between 2007 and 2022. Studies were eligible if they conducted an exergaming intervention to improve FMS in typically developing children aged three to twelve with a control group, using a baseline and post-intervention assessment design. FMS outcomes were pooled with a random effects model. Results: Nine trials (4 RCTs, 2 cluster RCTs and 3 non-randomized trials) of varying methodological quality (2 had low, 6 had some concerns, and 1 had a high risk of bias) were included, with a total of 783 participants. FMS outcome measures across studies comprised object control skills, locomotor skills, coordination, agility, balance and balance-related skills. The meta-analysis included showed a small positive effect in favor of the exergaming intervention (r = 0.24 [95% confidence interval: 0.11–0.36]). Conclusion: Our results indicate that screen-based technology that requires an active engagement of the child can promote the development of FMS. Considering that FMS are the foundation of a child’s physical, mental, health and academic development, this finding could lead to a reshaping of the perception of digital screen-based technology and the role this should play in children’s lives. We speculate that the observed benefits most likely depend upon the quality of information–movement coupling specificity and the motor learning strategies built into the exergame and/or the intervention design. We do not believe this is dependent on the type of FMS being performed or the amount of practice. We recommend therefore that future research should examine how practitioners (school teachers, coaches and parents) can facilitate the interaction between a child and exergaming technology.

• Fairclough, Stuart J.; Hurter, Liezel; Dumuid, Dorothea; Gába, Ales; Rowlands, Alex V. & del Pozo Cruz, Borja [Show all 18 contributors for this article] (2022). The Physical Behaviour Intensity Spectrum and Body Mass Index in School-Aged Youth: A Compositional Analysis of Pooled Individual Participant Data. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH). ISSN 1661-7827. 19(14). doi: 10.3390/ijerph19148778. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We examined the compositional associations between the intensity spectrum derived from incremental acceleration intensity bands and the body mass index (BMI) z-score in youth, and investigated the estimated differences in BMI z-score following time reallocations between intensity bands. School-aged youth from 63 schools wore wrist accelerometers, and data of 1453 participants (57.5% girls) were analysed. Nine acceleration intensity bands (range: 0–50 mg to ≥700 mg) were used to generate time-use compositions. Multivariate regression assessed the associations between intensity band compositions and BMI z-scores. Compositional isotemporal substitution estimated the differences in BMI z-score following time reallocations between intensity bands. The ≥700 mg intensity bandwas strongly and inversely associated with BMI z-score (p < 0.001). The estimated differences in BMI z-score when 5 min were reallocated to and from the ≥700 mg band and reallocated equally among the remaining bands were −0.28 and 0.44, respectively (boys), and −0.39 and 1.06, respectively (girls). The time in the ≥700 mg intensity band was significantly associated with BMI z-score, irrespective of sex. When even modest durations of time in this band were reallocated, the asymmetrical estimated differences in BMI z-score were clinically meaningful. The findings highlight the utility of the full physical activity intensity spectrum over a priori-determined absolute intensity cut-point approaches.

• Li, Ming Hui; Sit, Cindy Hui Ping; Wong, Stephen Heung Sang; Wing, Yun Kwok; Ng, Ching Kong & Rudd, James Robert [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2022). Effects of a blended classroom-based intervention on aerobic fitness, motor skills, inhibition, and daytime sleepiness among Hong Kong children. Frontiers in Public Health. ISSN 2296-2565. 10. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.944423. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In response to the all-round development of primary school children, this study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a blended intervention program on children's health-related outcomes of aerobic fitness, motor skills, inhibition and daytime sleepiness in classroom settings. Three experimental conditions include: (1) the “Stand + Move” group combining sit-stand desks and physical activity (PA) recess, (2) “Move” group with PA recess only, and (3) Control group (CG; normal class schedule). A total of 64 primary school children (37.5% girls and 62.5% boys, M [SD] = 9.6 [0.61], BMI mean = 17.0 ± 3.0) participated in all assessments, including aerobic fitness, motor skills, inhibitory control, and daytime sleepiness. The baseline data collection starts from January 2019, with the intervention lasting for 13 weeks and followed by post-intervention and follow up tests conducted in July and October 2019. There was a significant interaction effect on aerobic fitness [F(2,76) = 10.62, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.22] after the intervention period, whereas no significant interaction was observed for other variables. Significant main effects were observed in aerobic fitness (pre – post: −11.75 and −7.22) for both experimental groups, with the blended group showing greater improvements immediately post the test, while motor skills only showed a significant increase at the three-month follow-up, with the greatest increase in the blended group (pre-follow-up: −2.50). For inhibition control and daytime sleepiness, better improvements were shown for the experimental groups than for the control group. The blended designed intervention, by incorporating multiple components as an innovative strategy to reconstruct children's traditional classroom environment in Hong Kong, has demonstrated improved physical and psychological development of school children.

• Crotti, Matteo; Rudd, James Robert; Roberts, Simon; Fitton Davies, Katie; O’Callaghan, Laura & Utesch, Till [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). Physical activity promoting teaching practices and children’s physical activity within physical education lessons underpinned by motor learning theory (SAMPLE-PE). PLOS ONE. ISSN 1932-6203. 17(8). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272339. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Movement competence is a key outcome for primary physical education (PE) curricula. As movement development in children emerges through physical activity (PA), it is important to determine the extent of PA promotion within movement competence focused teaching pedagogies. Therefore, this study aimed to assess children’s moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and related teaching practices in primary PE within Linear pedagogy and Nonlinear pedagogy and to compare this to current practice within PE delivery in primary schools. Methods: Participants (n = 162, 53% females, 5-6y) were recruited from 9 primary schools within the SAMPLE-PE cluster randomised controlled trial. Schools were randomly-allocated to one of three conditions: Linear pedagogy, Nonlinear pedagogy, or control. Nonlinear and Linear pedagogy intervention schools received a PE curriculum delivered by trained deliverers over 15 weeks, while control schools followed usual practice. Children’s MVPA was measured during 3 PE lessons (44 PE lessons in total) using an ActiGraph GT9X accelerometer worn on their non-dominant wrist. Differences between conditions for children’s MVPA were analysed using multilevel model analysis. Negative binomial models were used to analyse teaching practices data. Results: No differences were found between Linear pedagogy, Nonlinear pedagogy and the control group for children’s MVPA levels during PE. Linear and Nonlinear interventions generally included higher percentages of MVPA promoting teaching practices (e.g., Motor Content) and lower MVPA reducing teaching practices (e.g., Management), compared to the control group. Teaching practices observed in Linear and Nonlinear interventions were in line with the respective pedagogical principles. Conclusions: Linear and Nonlinear pedagogical approaches in PE do not negatively impact MVPA compared to usual practice. Nevertheless, practitioners may need to refine these pedagogical approaches to improve MVPA alongside movement competence.

• Duncan, Michael J.; Foweather, Lawrence; Bardid, Farid; Barnett, Anna L.; Rudd, James & O'Brien, Wesley [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2022). Motor Competence Among Children in the United Kingdom and Ireland: An Expert Statement on Behalf of the International Motor Development Research Consortium. Journal of Motor Learning and Development. ISSN 2325-3193. 10(1), p. 7–26. doi: 10.1123/jmld.2021-0047. Show summary

  The United Kingdom and Ireland have a well-established research base in motor competence (MC) research, ranging from reporting and monitoring levels of MC, developing assessment tools for MC, providing innovative curriculum and intervention design to support learning and development, as well as providing advocacy for particular groups, such as those with motor impairments. This expert statement, on behalf of the International Motor Development Research Consortium, draws together what is currently known about levels of MC in the United Kingdom and Ireland as well as current approaches to intervention in both countries. Subsequently presented are recommendations for researchers and practitioners to advance the field of MC for the benefit of children and youth in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and worldwide.

• Rothwell, Martyn; Davids, Keith; Woods, Carl T.; Otte, Fabian; Rudd, James & Stone, Joseph A. (2022). Principles to Guide Talent Development Practices in Sport: The Exemplar Case of British Rugby League Football. Journal of Expertise. 5(1), p. 28–37. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The value of talent development programs, aimed at nurturing children and adolescents into high performance sport, has been widely questioned. However, there seems to be some agreement that the general concept of talent development is not the issue; rather, the problems exist in the design, implementation, and management of these systems. These challenges were exemplified in 2021 across British Rugby League Football, where the academy system came under scrutiny from the National Governing Body and many commentators from within the sport. In this paper, we argue that without a theoretical framework to guide learning in development, further operational guidance will continue to foster many of the practices that lead to criticism within the academic literature and from key stakeholders. Situated within the theoretical framework of ecological dynamics, we propose six principles to guide talent development practices of youth athletes: (1) non-linear development of athletes; (2) academies that are development focused, not performance driven; (3) importance of generality and specificity of practice in athlete development; (4) implementation of contemporary pedagogical models; (5) skilled intentionality; (6) an ethos of amateurism in a professional academy. We encourage practitioners to consider implementing these principles to realign talent development programs, thereby supporting fun, collaboration, inclusion, and a long-term enjoyment of movement and sports participation.

• Wilkie, Brett; Foulkes, Jonathan; Woods, Carl T.; Sweeting, Alice; Lewis, Colin & Davids, Keith [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). A games-based assessment in ecological dynamics for measuring physical literacy. Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (AJSEP). ISSN 2667-2391. 2(1), p. 50–58. doi: 10.1016/j.ajsep.2022.03.002. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Ideas and concepts taken from ecological dynamics might provide an alternative perspective on physical literacy assessment. The aim of this paper was to pilot an assessment of physical literacy conceptualised in an ecological dynamics theoretical rationale. The assessment that was designed has a number of unique features: its scale of analysis is captured at an individual-environment interaction level during game play and it captures key affordances that a child is attuning to and how they are functionally playing the game. Data collection involved observing primary school children playing invasion games in physical education classes. Digital, video-based tagging (Dartfish Pro) of children's behaviours using the emergent game-based assessment tool was completed. Pilot data provided insights on the potential rich interpretations possible, such as readily differentiating between low and high physical literacy learners’ behaviours when playing small-sided games. Greater knowledge of the performance environment was observed in children with higher physical literacy, noted through a greater capacity to favourably regulate their relative positioning between competing and cooperating players, adopting more varied offensive functionality, and exhibiting greater attunement to key affordances. Better understanding children's knowledge of the environment during games play, provides practitioners novel insight into how physical literacy reveals itself through embedded actions. This appreciation can help inform practice more holistically, contributing to richer learning environments and task design.

• Li, Ming Hui; Rudd, James; Chow, Jia Yi; Sit, Cindy Hui Ping; Wong, Stephen Heung Sang & Sum, Raymond Kim Wai (2022). A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Blended Physical Literacy Intervention to Support Physical Activity and Health of Primary School Children. Sports Medicine - Open. ISSN 2198-9761. 8. doi: 10.1186/s40798-022-00448-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: The concept of physical literacy (PL) has been advocated as the need to create environments fostering sustainable engagement in PA. This study adopted ecological approach to evaluate the effectiveness of a blended PL intervention embedded into the school day to support children’s PA and health. Method: Designed as a three-arm randomized controlled trial, a total of 79 participants (59.5% girls) were randomly assigned to: the “Quantity + Quality” blended PL group combining sit–stand desks and play-based recess (SSPlay), the “Quality” group with play-based recess only (Play) or the control group. The intervention lasted for 13 weeks, and all the variables were collected at baseline, post-intervention and 3-month follow-up. Results: SSPlay and Play group significantly improved on two of the embodied PL domains, Physical Competence (− 2.96 vs − 5.15, p < 0.05) and Knowledge and Understanding (− 2.35 vs − 2.00, p < 0.05), total errors of cognitive flexibility (24.00 vs 12.92, p < 0.05), and this difference was maintained at follow-up (p < 0.05). Whilst there was no interaction effect between groups, and time effects were found for PA and planning from baseline to post-intervention. Conclusion: This was the first to adopt an ecological approach as an innovative strategy to provide the emergence of PA for children in Hong Kong. The blended intervention design that embedded both quantity and quality of PA into children’s school day has shown promise in supporting children’s all round development. PL intervention where environments are designed to increase the “Quantity + Quality” of children’s everyday interactions has led to improvements in PA and health outcomes, which may provide insights for future studies to adopt cost-friendly and feasible measures for promoting children’s PA in the school settings.

• Fitton Davies, Katie; Foweather, Lawrence; Watson, Paula M.; Bardid, Farid; Roberts, Simon J. & Davids, Keith [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2021). Assessing the motivational climates in early physical education curricula underpinned by motor learning theory: SAMPLE-PE. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. ISSN 1740-8989. doi: 10.1080/17408989.2021.2014436. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Traditionally, Physical Education (PE) has adopted a multi-skills approach, where children generally engage in decontextualised practice of sport techniques to develop specific movement skills and facilitate sports participation. This approach has been critiqued for having a weak conceptual and philosophical justification, and a lack of empirical proof of its educational value. The SAMPLE-PE research project set out to challenge this by creating two PE curricula distinguished by contrasting theories of motor learning: information processing theory and ecological dynamics. While both approaches have shown promise in enhancing children’s movement skills, to date, there has been little consideration of their impact on the motivational climate of primary PE lessons. This study explored to what extent traditional PE, ecological dynamics, and information processing theory-based approaches create empowering and disempowering motivational climates when viewed through a self-determination and achievement goal theory lens. Method: Forty-four PE lessons were video recorded and coded by two trained researchers using the Multidimensional Motivational Climate Observation System. ANOVA, MANOVA and Bonferroni post-hoc tests were run to explore differences in data on motivational climate under the three different pedagogical approaches. Results: The group taught with concepts from ecological dynamics (referred to as Ecological) displayed a significantly lower disempowering motivational climate in comparison to the group taught with a basis in information processing theory (referred to as IPT) and the traditional PE groups. The ecological group revealed significantly more autonomy support than the traditional PE and the IPT group. The IPT group methods provided significantly more structure than traditional PE and the ecological group. Conclusion: The findings of this study have shown how the approach taken in delivering PE in primary schools may differentially affect motivational climates. Results imply that underpinning PE with theories of motor learning provides differing, viable and beneficial alternatives to create positive learning environments, compared to traditional PE practices.

• Stodden, David F.; Lakes, Kimberly; Côté, Jean; Aadland, Eivind; Benzing, Valentin & Brian, Ali [Show all 21 contributors for this article] (2021). Exploration: an overarching focus for holistic development. Brazilian Journal of Motor Behavior. ISSN 2446-4902. 15(5), p. 301–320. doi: 10.20338/bjmb.v15i5.254.
• Woods, Carl T.; Araújo, Duarte; Davids, Keith & Rudd, James (2021). From a Technology That Replaces Human Perception–Action to One That Expands It: Some Critiques of Current Technology Use in Sport. Sports Medicine - Open. ISSN 2198-9761. 7(1), p. 1–10. doi: 10.1186/s40798-021-00366-y.
• Woods, Carl T.; Rudd, James; Araújo, Duarte; Vaughan, James & Davids, Keith (2021). Weaving Lines of Inquiry: Promoting Transdisciplinarity as a Distinctive Way of Undertaking Sport Science Research. Sports Medicine - Open. ISSN 2198-9761. 7(1). doi: 10.1186/s40798-021-00347-1.

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• Grindheim, Maria; Ødegaard, Elin Eriksen & Rudd, James Robert (2023). Children’s communication and negotiation in and through movement, play and exploration.
• Grindheim, Maria; Ødegaard, Elin Eriksen; Rudd, James Robert & Aadland, Eivind (2023). Guided tours in kindergarten - An investigation of teachers’ and children’s situated understandings of the relationship between movement, play and exploration using Guided Tours.
• Radmann, Aage; Rudd, James Robert & Gjølme, Egil Galaaen (2022). Sustainable social and educational integration through sport activities – A Romanian case study. .

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