Sigmund Loland

• Skilbred, Anette; Strandbu, Åse & Loland, Sigmund (2024). Youth athletes’ framing of nutritional supplements: Performance enhancement and food. International Review for the Sociology of Sport. ISSN 1012-6902. doi: 10.1177/10126902241260923.
• Loland, Sigmund (2024). Sport-related concussion (SCR) prevention and the nature of sport: possibilities and limitations. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2024.2361920.
• Storaas, Margrethe Voll & Loland, Sigmund (2024). Why do birds have wings? A biosemiotic argument for the primacy of naturogenic sporting sites. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2024.2334328.
• Skilbred, Anette; Loland, Sigmund & Strandbu, Åse (2024). Young networked athletes and performance-enhancing substances: who are the actors in their network, and how do the actors shape athletes’ meaning-making? European Journal for Sport and Society (EJSS). ISSN 1613-8171. doi: 10.1080/16138171.2024.2335578.
• Loland, Sigmund (2023). The Idea of Natural Athletic Performance : An Interpretation and a Defence . In Svensson, Daniel; Backman, Erik; Hedenborg, Susanna & Sörlin, Sverker (Ed.), Sport, Performance and Sustainability. Routledge. ISSN 9781003283324. p. 19–30. doi: 10.4324/9781003283324-3.
• Loland, Sigmund; Ettema, Gertjan & Sandbakk, Øyvind Bucher (2023). The study of movement skills in sports: toward an integrative approach. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1252201. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The article commences with a fundamental objective: to comprehend movement skills in sports in a manner that can bridge the dualist gap between experiential qualities observed in practice and theoretical and mechanistic explanations. Drawing inspiration from Kuhn’s concept of scientific paradigms, practical examples from skiing research, and innovative insights into the integration of phenomenology and mechanistic explanation in cognitive science, we have outlined a three-step integrative approach. The first step entails the development of phenomenological descriptions of the primary experiential qualities inherent in the execution of the skills being investigated. In the second step, phenomenological descriptions play a pivotal role by setting constraints and delineating a space for the elaboration of multilevel mechanistic analyses. These analyses draw upon insights from various fields, encompassing biomechanics, motor control approaches, expertise studies, and cognitive science. The third step involves the systematization of findings and the formulation of sport-specific movement skills theories. We contend that such theories hold substantial significance as they serve as valuable supplements to skill studies conducted within rigid, nomological frameworks. Sport-specific theories include descriptions of first-person experiential qualities and can contribute to bridging the theory-practice gap effectively.

• Loland, Sigmund & Bäckström, Åsa (2023). Into the glidescape: an outline of gliding sports from the perspective of applied phenomenology. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2023.2260447. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  There is an absence in the literature on sports of a conceptualization of what in French are labeled sports de glisse: sports that imply gliding on water, through air, and on snow and ice, such as surfing, paragliding, skiing, and skating. Inspired by Ingold’s (1993) concept of the taskscape, we introduce the idea of the glidescape: a perceptual field in which gliding sports practitioners inhabit, create, and transform their environment while at the same time being recreated and transformed themselves. Using an applied phenomenological approach, we describe the main experiential qualities and structure of the glidescape. In the quest for extended phases of effortless movement, gliders engage in a clearly accentuated rhythm with sharp contrasts between forceful effort and smooth effortlessness based on a fine-tuned proprioceptive sense for material and ecological resonance, which opens fleeting and emplaced moments of freedom and authenticity.

• McNamee, Mike; Anderson, Lynley C.; Borry, Pascal; Camporesi, Silvia; Derman, Wayne & Holm, Søren [Show all 16 contributors for this article] (2023). Sport-related concussion research agenda beyond medical science: Culture, ethics, science, policy. Journal of Medical Ethics. ISSN 0306-6800. doi: 10.1136/jme-2022-108812. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Concussion in Sport Group guidelines have successfully brought the attention of brain injuries to the global medical and sport research communities, and has significantly impacted brain injury-related practices and rules of international sport. Despite being the global repository of state-of-the-art science, diagnostic tools and guides to clinical practice, the ensuing consensus statements remain the object of ethical and sociocultural criticism. The purpose of this paper is to bring to bear a broad range of multidisciplinary challenges to the processes and products of sport-related concussion movement. We identify lacunae in scientific research and clinical guidance in relation to age, disability, gender and race. We also identify, through multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary analysis, a range of ethical problems resulting from conflicts of interest, processes of attributing expertise in sport-related concussion, unjustifiably narrow methodological control and insufficient athlete engagement in research and policy development. We argue that the sport and exercise medicine community need to augment the existing research and practice foci to understand these problems more holistically and, in turn, provide guidance and recommendations that help sport clinicians better care for brain-injured athletes.

• Loland, Sigmund (2023). Sport, values, and character. In Wenner, Lawrence A. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of sport and society. Oxford University Press. ISSN 978-0-19-751901-1. p. 27–47.
• Breivik, Gunnar; Sagoe, Dominic & Loland, Sigmund (2022). Personality and willingness towards performance enhancement and body modification: A cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of Norwegians. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. ISSN 2624-9367. 4. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2022.906634. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We conducted an exploratory investigation of the relationship between personality and willingness towards performance enhancement and body modification in Norway. The study is based on Norwegian Monitor data from a cross-sectional survey of a nationally representative sample of 4,233 (females: 49.9%) persons aged 15 to 96 (45.92 ± 18.02) years. Data were collected using a questionnaire containing demographic questions and measures of physical appearance satisfaction, physical activity level, personality (five-factor model), and willingness towards performance enhancement (e.g., substances that improve creative thinking) and body modification (e.g., use of muscle-building substances). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multiple regression analyses. We found that 62.2% and 50.1% of our sample were either willing to use or contemplating using substances that reduce memory failure and enhance physical fitness respectively. Our sample was most willing or contemplating tattooing (30.0%) and generally skeptical of the other body modification methods with willingness to use or contemplating using substances to enhance muscularity least accepted (3.9%). Higher fantasy/openness and lower agreeableness were associated with higher willingness towards both performance enhancement and body modification. Additionally, higher extraversion and lower control/conscientiousness predicted higher willingness towards body modification. Our findings corroborate previous indications that performance enhancement and body modification are now mainstream. They also underline the importance of personality traits in willingness towards these practices.

• Kristensen, Jan Åge; Skilbred, Anette; Abrahamsen, Frank Eirik; Ommundsen, Yngvar & Loland, Sigmund (2022). Performance-enhancing and health-compromising behaviors in youth sports: A systematic mixed-studies review. Performance Enhancement & Health. ISSN 2211-2669. 10(4). doi: 10.1016/j.peh.2022.100237. Show summary

  Success in sports entails striving toward greater achievement and outstanding performance. In their pursuit of these goals, adolescent athletes use various means and resort to behaviors that may cause adverse consequences for their health. As they are still in the developmental stage, they are particularly vulnerable to unwanted health consequences. This study aimed to systematically review previous studies on the contextual and personal factors associated with adolescent athletes’ performance-enhancing and health-compromising behaviors. The review was conducted and reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020 guidelines. Several databases were searched, including SPORTDiscus, Pubmed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science. The literature search and additional manual searches of sources yielded a total of 2,808 articles. These were screened against the inclusion criteria, and the remaining 15 were assessed for eligibility using Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool 2018. Convergent meta-integration with thematic analysis was performed by converting quantitative and qualitative data from young athletes aged 14–20 years into relevant codes and themes. Within these themes, the study's findings are presented through narratives that are perceived to influence young athletes’ use of doping and other behaviors that may lead to doping, such as the use of nutritional supplementation and non-prescription painkillers and playing despite being injured and having pain. Our findings indicate that athletes’ entourages (e.g., their coaches, peers, and parents) matter in a variety of ways in athletes’ socialization toward refraining from risking their health in pursuit of greater achievement and outstanding performance.

• Gammelsæter, Hallgeir & Loland, Sigmund (2022). Code red for elite sport : a critique of sustainability in elite sport and a tentative reform program. European Sport Management Quarterly. ISSN 1618-4742. 23(1), p. 104–124. doi: 10.1080/16184742.2022.2096661. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research question: Is elite sport compatible with environmental sustainability? This paper critically investigates elite sports’ possible future in a world where cutbacks in resource use, pollution, and greenhouse gas emission are indispensable measures towards environmental sustainability. Research methods: The paper is a conceptual and pragmatic inquiry that uses the current research literature to explore the logics of elite sport and its dynamics and alignment with paradigms of sustainability. Results and findings: Elite sport’s extensive engagement with governments and commercial agents pursuing prestige, growth, and profit has created a current state of overheating and runaway processes that threatens both sport’s internal values and nature itself. The situation begs extending the self-imposed constraints in sports practice to the governance of sport in a way that is fully compatible with elite sport. Implications: Provided concrete sustainability reforms are substantiated, on the innovation of equipment and technology, on state and commercial financing of elite sport, and on the organizing of competitions and mega-events, elite sport can flourish as a healthier and environmentally friendly social activity.

• Loland, Sigmund & McNamee, Mike (2022). Olympism and the idea of anti-doping: between the thick and thin interpretations of sporting progress. In Rabin, Olivier & Corazza, Ornella (Ed.), Emerging drugs in sport. Springer. ISSN 9783030792923. p. 113–126. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-79293-0_8.
• Loland, Sigmund & Sandvik, Morten Renslo (2021). Leadership in Elite Sport : Normative Tensions and Ethical Decision Making. In Andersen, Svein S; Hansen, Per Øystein & Houlihan, Barrie (Ed.), Embedded Multi-Level Leadership in Elite Sport. Routledge. ISSN 9780367552770. p. 13–25. doi: 10.4324/9781003092728-2.
• Hamilton, Blair R.; Lima, Giscard Humberto Oliveira; Barrett, James; Seal, Leighton; Kolliari-Turner, Alexander & Wang, Guan [Show all 70 contributors for this article] (2021). Integrating Transwomen and Female Athletes with Differences of Sex Development (DSD) into Elite Competition: The FIMS 2021 Consensus Statement. Sports Medicine. ISSN 0112-1642. 51(7), p. 1401–1415. doi: 10.1007/s40279-021-01451-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Sport is historically designated by the binary categorization of male and female that conflicts with modern society. Sport’s governing bodies should consider reviewing rules determining the eligibility of athletes in the female category as there may be lasting advantages of previously high testosterone concentrations for transwomen athletes and currently high testosterone concentrations in differences in sex development (DSD) athletes. The use of serum testosterone concentrations to regulate the inclusion of such athletes into the elite female category is currently the objective biomarker that is supported by most available scientific literature, but it has limitations due to the lack of sports performance data before, during or after testosterone suppression. Innovative research studies are needed to identify other biomarkers of testosterone sensitivity/responsiveness, including molecular tools to determine the functional status of androgen receptors. The scientific community also needs to conduct longitudinal studies with specific control groups to generate the biological and sports performance data for individual sports to inform the fair inclusion or exclusion of these athletes. Eligibility of each athlete to a sport-specific policy needs to be based on peer-reviewed scientific evidence made available to policymakers from all scientific communities. However, even the most evidence-based regulations are unlikely to eliminate all differences in performance between cisgender women with and without DSD and transwomen athletes. Any remaining advantage held by transwomen or DSD women could be considered as part of the athlete’s unique makeup.

• Loland, Sigmund (2021). Classification in sport: A question of fairness. European Journal of Sport Science (EJSS). ISSN 1746-1391. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1923816. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Competitor classification schemes have been a part of sport since its origins. Eligibility criteria have developed towards inclusion and increasing diversity. The pool of competitors has expanded from the ancient Olympic Games, eligible only to free Greek men, via nineteenth-century English sport favouring primarily the upper class of so-called gentlemen amateurs, to the current global and diverse pool of men, women, children, and able-bodied as well as disabled persons. Hence, the challenge of sound classification schemes has increased. This article examines the principles of fair classification of athletes. With the help of normative theory as well as practical examples, a fair equality of opportunity principle for sport (FEOPs) is formulated. It is demonstrated how sound classification schemes combine the normative backing from FEOPs with relevant scientific insights. Current classification challenges and possibilities for change are discussed. It is suggested that in several sports, biological sex classes can be abandoned, and that in some sports, sex classes can be replaced by body size classes. It is argued, too, that sports in which body height exerts a significant and systematic impact on performance should classify accordingly. In the final part, classification is discussed in light of new techno-scientific possibilities, among them the possibility of innovative performance-enhancing prosthetics.

• Loland, Sigmund (2021). The poetics of everyday movement: Human movement ecology and urban walking. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 48(2), p. 219–234. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2021.1915148. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Departing from the hegemonic position of epidemiology in population physical activity (PA) research and policy, I argue for the significance of a complementary, holistic approach: human movement ecology (HME). The argument is developed in two steps. In a first step, and using perspectives from body ecology and eco-philosophy, I emphasize the potential in movement of a ’dynamic and spontaneous ecologization’, which opens for the development of ecological consciousness and sustainable practice. In a second step, I test HME towards a ’hard case’: everyday routine walking in urban settings. Even here, and paying particular attention to the nature of habitual movement and the need for a ’greening’ of urban environments, I point to a significant movement ecological potential. I conclude that HME provides a fertile and complementary conceptual alternative to PA epidemiology. The challenge of low population PA levels is probably best met with facilitating for movement as an integral part of a sustainable everyday life. Actually, with an increased realization of HME ideals in practice, instrumental PA policies would become less relevant and, on a longer-term basis, perhaps not needed at all.

• Loland, Sigmund (2020). Response to commentaries on 'Caster Semenya, athlete classification, and fair equality of opportunity in sport'. Journal of Medical Ethics. ISSN 0306-6800. 46(9), p. 599–600. doi: 10.1136/medethics-2020-106755.
• Petróczi, Andrea; Backhouse, Susan H.; Boardley, Ian D.; Saugy, Martial; Pitsiladis, Yannis & Viret, Marjolaine [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2020). ‘Clean athlete status’ cannot be certified: Calling for caution, evidence and transparency in ‘alternative’ anti-doping systems. International journal of drug policy. ISSN 0955-3959. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103030. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Athletes, sponsors and sport organisations all have a vested interest in upholding the values of clean sport. Despite the considerable and concerted efforts of the global anti-doping system over two decades, the present system is imperfect. Capitalising upon consequent frustrations of athletes, event organisers and sponsors, alternative anti-doping systems have emerged outside the global regulatory framework. The operating principles of these systems raise several concerns, notably including accountability, legitimacy and fairness to athletes. In this paper, we scrutinise the Clean Protocol™, which is the most comprehensive alternative system, for its shortcomings through detailed analysis of its alleged logical and scientific merits. Specifically, we draw the attention of the anti-doping community – including researchers and practitioners – to the potential pitfalls of using assessment tools beyond the scope for which they have been validated, and implementing new approaches without validation. Further, we argue that whilst protecting clean sport is critically important to all stakeholders, protocols that put athletes in disadvantageous positions and/or pose risks to their professional and personal lives lack legitimacy. We criticise the use of anti-doping data and scientific research out of context, and highlight unintended harms that are likely to arise from the widespread implementation of such protocols in parallel with – or in place of – the existing global anti-doping framework.

• Loland, Sigmund (2020). Caster Semenya, athlete classification, and fair equality of opportunity in sport. Journal of Medical Ethics. ISSN 0306-6800. 46(9), p. 584–590. doi: 10.1136/medethics-2019-105937. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  According to the Differences of Sex Development (DSD) Regulations of the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), Caster Semenya and other athletes with heightened testosterone levels are considered non-eligible for middle distance running races in the women’s class. Based on an analysis of fair equality of opportunity in sport, I take a critical look at the Semenya case and at IAAF’s DSD Regulations. I distinguish between what I call stable and dynamic inequalities between athletes. Stable inequalities are those that athletes cannot impact or control in any significant way such as inequalities in biological sex, body size and chronological age. Dynamic inequalities, such as inequalities in strength, speed and endurance, or in technical and tactical skills, can be impacted and to a certain extent controlled by athletes. If stable inequalities exert significant and systematic impact on performance, they provide a rationale for classification. If high testosterone level is an inborn, strong and systemic driver of performance development, inequalities in such levels can provide a rationale for classification. As is emphasised by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), this leads to a dilemma of rights: the right of Semenya to compete in sport according to her legal sex and gender identity, and the right of other athletes within the average female testosterone range to compete under fair conditions. I conclude with providing conditional support of the CAS decision in the Semenya case and of IAAF’s DSD Regulations.

• Loland, Sigmund & McNamee, Michael John (2019). The ‘spirit of sport’, WADAs code review, and the search for an overlapping consensus. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics. ISSN 1940-6940. doi: 10.1080/19406940.2019.1581646. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this paper, we argue for the recognition that anti-doping is in itselffirst andforemost an ethical position. The current World Anti-doping Code formula-tion of‘the spirit of sport’is an acknowledgement of this point anda counterweight against scientific and technicist understandings of the nat-ureofanti-dopingitself.WecriticallyreviewtheCodeformulationson‘thespirit of sport’. Based on a theoretical background of various approaches tonormative agreement and consensus in a setting of diversity of‘comprehen-sive views’, we argue for revision of the Code. Specifically, we argue for a re-formulation of‘the spirit of sport’in terms of athlete protection and thepreservation of the integrity of sporting competition that could meet require-ments on an overlapping consensus among all WADA stakeholders. This isnot just a matter of formality and Code acceptance. An overlapping consen-sus is not a meremodus vivendibut a normative consensus based on fair,honest, and transparent discourse in which participants deliberate in a settingof mutual respect and trust, and of‘decency’, which is a basis for a consensusthat cultivates authentic stakeholder commitment.

• Durbin, Daniel; Loland, Sigmund & McNamee, Mike (2018). Morgan and the Sporting Life. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. p. 1–2. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2018.1535523.
• Loland, Sigmund (2018). Ethics of technology in sport. In Morgan, William J. (Eds.), Ethics in sport. Human Kinetics. ISSN 978-1-4925-5676-3. p. 273–286. doi: 10.5040/9781492595465.ch-018.
• Loland, Sigmund (2018). Sport, Performance-enhancing Drugs, and the Art of Self-imposed Constraints. International Journal of Applied Philosophy. ISSN 0739-098X. 32(1), p. 87–100. doi: 10.5840/ijap2018828102. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Should the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PED) be banned in sport? A proper response to this question depends upon ideas of the meaning and value of sport. To a certain extent, sport is associated with ideal values such as equality of opportunity, fair play, performance and progress. PED-use is considered contrary to sport. On the other hand, critics see sport as an expression of non-sustainable and competitive individualism that threatens human welfare and development. PED-use is considered a logical consequence of sport values. I challenge both views as simplistic and inadequate. I develop what I refer to as the normative structure of sport consisting of self-imposed constraints at three levels: in the formal rules, in norms for fair play, and in the interpretation of athletic excellence as a morally relevant instantiation of human excellence. I argue that the question of a ban on PED should be discussed at the third level and depends upon interpretations of athletic excellence as a form of human excellence. I conclude that, in the current situation of elite sport, proponents of a ban on PED seem to have the strongest arguments.

• Borry, Pascal; Caulfield, Timothy; Estivill, Xavier; Loland, Sigmund; McNamee, Michael & Knoppers, Bartha Maria (2018). Geolocalisation of athletes for out-of-competition drug testing: Ethical considerations. Position statement by the WADA Ethics Panel. British Journal of Sports Medicine. ISSN 0306-3674. 52(7), p. 456–459. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098299. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Through the widespread availability of location-identifying devices, geolocalisation could potentially be used to place athletes during out-of-competition testing. In light of this debate, the WADA Ethics Panel formulated the following questions: (1) should WADA and/or other sponsors consider funding such geolocalisation research projects?, (2) if successful, could they be proposed to athletes as a complementary device to Anti-Doping Administration and Management System to help geolocalisation and reduce the risk of missed tests? and (3) should such devices be offered on a voluntary basis, or is it conceivable that they would be made mandatory for all athletes in registered testing pools? In this position paper, the WADA Ethics Panel concludes that the use of geolocalisation could be useful in a research setting with the goal of understanding associations between genotype, phenotype and environment; however, it recognises that the use of geolocalisation as part of or as replacement of whereabouts rules is replete with ethical concerns. While benefits remain largely hypothetical and minimal, the potential invasion of privacy and the data security threats are real. Considering the impact on privacy, data security issues, the societal ramifications of offering such services and various pragmatic considerations, the WADA Ethics Panel concludes that at this time, the use of geolocalisation should neither be mandated as a tool for disclosing whereabouts nor implemented on a voluntary basis.

• Loland, Sigmund (2018). Performance-Enhancing Drugs, Sport, and the Ideal of Natural Athletic Performance. American Journal of Bioethics. ISSN 1526-5161. 18(6), p. 8–15. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2018.1459934. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The use of certain performance-enhancing drugs (PED) is banned in sport. I discuss critically standard justifications of the ban based on arguments from two widely used criteria: fairness and harms to health. I argue that these arguments on their own are inadequate, and only make sense within a normative understanding of athletic performance and the value of sport. In the discourse over PED, the distinction between “natural” and “artificial” performance has exerted significant impact. I examine whether the distinction makes sense from a moral point of view. I propose an understanding of “natural” athletic performance by combining biological knowledge of training with an interpretation of the normative structure of sport. I conclude that this understanding can serve as moral justification of the PED ban and enable critical and analytically based line drawing between acceptable and nonacceptable performance-enhancing means in sport.

• Loland, Sigmund (2018). Morgan, the ‘Gratuitous’ Logic of Sport, and the Art of Self-Imposed Constraints. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 12(4), p. 348–360. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2018.1493530. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Sport occupies a significant role in modern society and has a wide following. In his Leftist Theories of Sport (LTS), Morgan examines what he considers to be a degradation of modern sport and the lack of proper critical theory to address this challenge. In the latter part of LTS, Morgan presents a reconstructed critical theory with ‘a liberal twist’ in terms of an analysis of what he sees as the internal ‘gratuitous’ logic of sport, and a call for critical deliberation in sporting practice communities. I depart from Morgan’s ideas of the ‘gratuitous’ logic of sport which, I believe, has significant potential and operative force. I interpret the logic of sport as forms of self-imposed constraints at three levels: in the logic of the rules, in norms for fair play, and in a particular interpretation of sporting excellence as a form of human excellence. Using the practical case of performance-enhancing drugs, I demonstrate how this interpretation can exert operative power. I conclude by pointing to the internal ‘gratuitous’ logic of sport as cultivating what Goethe classically defined as a sign of mastery: the art of limitation and self-imposed constraints.

• Sandvik, Morten Renslo; Bakken, Anders & Loland, Sigmund (2018). Anabolic-androgenic steroid use and correlates in Norwegian adolescents. European Journal of Sport Science (EJSS). ISSN 1746-1391. 18(6), p. 903–910. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1459869. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper surveys the prevalence and correlates of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use among Norwegian adolescents, and examines the degree to which sports participation is a mediating or moderating factor to well-known correlations between AAS use and problem behaviour. The data come from the “Ungdata” study, a cross-national youth survey system offered to all municipalities in Norway (response rate: 74%, N = 77,572). The study demonstrates a lifetime prevalence of AAS use of 1.27% and a higher prevalence among boys (1.81%) than girls (0.76%). The analyses show that AAS use is clearly related to problem behaviour such as violence and other substance use. When controlling for problem behaviour, there are no correlations between AAS use and exercising in a sports club or on one’s own, whilst there is a weak positive correlation between AAS use and exercising in a gym or engaging in other forms of physical exercise such as dancing or martial arts. These patterns are more or less the same for boys and for girls. We conclude that adolescent AAS use is a low-prevalence phenomenon that primarily takes place in smaller subgroups of individuals who engage in other forms of problem behaviour as well.

• Loland, Sigmund (2018). Sport: a scientific experiment? Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. doi: 10.1080/17430437.2018.1435003. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Science plays an increasingly important role in sport. Innovative high-tech equipment and research-based exercise regimes are vivid examples. In more subtle forms, scientific ways of thinking impact how sport is understood and practiced. I examine the possibilities and limits of scientific rationality in the set-up of competitive sport. Standard requirements on reliability and validity make sense when it comes to the quest for equal opportunity, and for fair and impartial evaluation of performance. However, whereas the instrumental aim of science is ‘certified’ knowledge, I argue that sport has primary meaning and value in itself. In further analysis of the normative structure of sport, an alternative ludic rationality emerges with elements of merit, chance and luck. I argue that sport is structured to cultivate not only athletic but human excellence. I conclude that upholding ludic rationality, operationalized in norms for fair play, is crucial for realizing sport’s characteristic values.

• Loland, Sigmund (2017). Education in anti-doping : the art of self-imposed constraints. In Rabin, Olivier & Pitsiladis, Yannis (Ed.), Acute topics in anti-doping. S. Karger. ISSN 978-3-318-06043-0. p. 153–159. doi: 10.1159/000460725.
• Loland, Sigmund (2017). The exercise pill: should we replace exercise with pharmaceutical means? Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 11(1), p. 63–74. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2016.1272132. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  New physiological and pharmacological research points to the possibility of a pill that produces the complete physiological effects of exercise. Is replacement of exercise with a pill a good idea? And if so, under what circumstances? To explore answers, I have examined three approaches to the understanding exercise. From a dualist point of view, exercise is explained mechanistically in terms of physiological cause and effect relationships. From this perspective, and in particular for reluctant exercisers, there seems to be no strong argument against the use of a pill. From a phenomenological point of view, exercise is understood from a first person perspective focusing on experiential qualities. It is argued that a pill can never replace the embodied, experiential values of exercising and their potential ethical significance. In other words, the use of a pill is rejected. From a critical social constructivist point of view, exercise is understood as an expression of sociocultural values. Exercise can be a source of both bodily alienation and embodied self-realization and meaning. It is argued that in settings of alienating exercise malpractice, an exercise pill can be a temporary lesser evil approach. It is pointed out, however, that the long-term solution to malpractice is not a pill but a change of practice. In a final section, the possibility of the exercise pill is contextualized in the larger, bio-ethical debate on human enhancement.

• Andersen, Wivi & Loland, Sigmund (2017). Jumping for recognition: Women's ski jumping viewed as a struggle for rights. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. ISSN 0905-7188. 27(3), p. 359–365. doi: 10.1111/sms.12662. Show summary

  With the campaign for women’s participation in international and Olympic ski jumping as a practical case, sport’s potential for recognition of individual rights is explored. In line with Honneth’s influential ethical theory, recognition of rights refers to a mutual recognition between persons of each other as rational and responsible agents with an equal right to take part in the public formation and development of their community or practice. The argument is that women ski jumpers were entitled to compete as they had actual and/or potential capabilities and skills to contribute in the public formation and development of their sport. Their exclusion was a violation of individual rights. At a more general level, sport is discussed as a sphere for recognition of rights. It is argued that the basic principles of equal opportunity to take part and to perform make sport a particularly clear and potent sphere for such recognition, and also for the identification of rights violations. In sport, rights, or the violation of rights, are demonstrated in concrete and embodied ways. It is concluded that struggles for recognition and individual rights are a continuous process in sport as in most other human institutions and practices.

• Loland, Sigmund & McNamee, Mike (2017). Philosophical reflections on the mission of the European College of Sport Science: Challenges and opportunities. European Journal of Sport Science (EJSS). ISSN 1746-1391. 17(1), p. 63–69. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1210238. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The European College of Sport Science (ECSS) was established in part to promote the integrated study of sports and related phenomena from multi- and interdisciplinary perspectives. There are significant and enduring philosophical, epistemological and professional challenges and opportunities that arise from this integrationist perspective. In this article, we reflect upon the challenges that have arisen in the development of sport sciences in the attempt to realize the ECSS mission. We identify three paradigmatic approaches to sports science: (1) the mechanistic; (2) the hermeneutic and (3) the critical. We critically evaluate these paradigms and their potential within the broad framework of integrationist ambitions for sports science as a scientific field.

• Sandvik, Morten Renslo; Strandbu, Åse & Loland, Sigmund (2016). Talking Doping : A Frame Analysis of Communication About Doping Among Talented, Young, Norwegian Road Cyclists. Sociology of Sport Journal. ISSN 0741-1235. doi: 10.1123/ssj.2016-0073. Show summary

  In everyday communication, participants can critically explore their understanding of morally complex phenomena. There has been little effort within the social sciences to provide insight into whether and how athletes communicate among themselves about morally contested topics. This study attempts to fill this gap in the literature. Through focus group interviews and with the help of Goffman's frame analysis, we explore how a group of young, Norwegian road cyclists communicates about doping. The article demonstrates that this communication is strongly norm-regulated and often appears as brief, assertive, and evasive. We show how the communication reflects a hegemonic discourse of doping as immoral and inexcusable. We conclude that this discourse limits explorative communication and may limit young athletes' preparation for doping-related dilemmas and social pressures.

• Loland, Sigmund & McNamee, Michael (2016). Anti-doping, performance enhancement and 'the spirit of sport' : a philosophical and ethical critique. In Ahmadi, Nader; Ljungqvist, Arne & Svedsäter, Göran (Ed.), Doping and public health. Routledge. ISSN 978-1-138-91855-9. p. 111–123.
• Loland, Sigmund (2016). Simon on luck and desert in sport: a review and some comments. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 43(1), p. 15–25. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2015.1119048.
• Andersen, Wivi & Loland, Sigmund (2015). Sport and the obligation of solidarity. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 9(3), p. 243–256. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2015.1065432. Show summary

  The paper departs from an analysis of the case of Michelle Dumaresq, a transgender female downhill mountain biker who experienced marginalization within her sport. The analysis is based on Axel Honneth’s theory of recognition. The Dumaresq case is particularly relevant to Honneth’s ideas of solidarity, which provide insight into the dynamics of social integration. Honneth’s theory of recognition also provides a conceptual framework and a methodology that gives new perspectives on the ethical significance of sport. In the paper, an analysis is presented of the lack of solidarity experienced by Dumaresq. The argument is made that sport has a particular potential for realizing solidarity among its practitioners. Realizing solidarity however depends to a large degree upon that the rules of sport are perceived as fair and just. In the Dumaresq case, challenges to solidarity came from what her competitors considered to be unfair classification rules. Summing up, it is argued that, as long as the rules of a sport is perceived as fair and just, voluntary engagement gives rise not only to obligations on fair play but to a moral obligation on solidarity as well.

• Loland, Sigmund (2015). Performance-enhancing biomedical technology in sport : where are the limits? In Møller, Verner; Waddington, Ivan & Hoberman, John (Ed.), Routledge handbook of drugs and sport. Routledge. ISSN 978-0-415-70278-2. p. 54–63. doi: 10.4324/9780203795347-6.
• Loland, Sigmund (2015). Fair play. In McNamee, Mike & Morgan, William J. (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport. Routledge. ISSN 978-0-415-82980-9. p. 333–350.
• Loland, Sigmund (2015). Against Genetic Tests for Athletic Talent: The Primacy of the Phenotype. Sports Medicine. ISSN 0112-1642. 45(9), p. 1229–1233. doi: 10.1007/s40279-015-0352-5. Show summary

  New insights into the genetics of sport performance lead to new areas of application. One area is the use of genetic tests to identify athletic talent. Athletic performances involve a high number of complex phenotypical traits. Based on the ACCE model (review of Analytic and Clinical validity, Clinical utility, and Ethical, legal and social implications), a critique is offered of the lack of validity and predictive power of genetic tests for talent. Based on the ideal of children’s right to an open future, a moral argument is given against such tests on children and young athletes. A possible role of genetic tests in sport is proposed in terms of identifying predisposition for injury. In meeting ACCE requirements, such tests could improve individualised injury prevention and increase athlete health. More generally, limitations of science are discussed in the identification of talent and in the understanding of complex human performance phenotypes. An alternative approach to talent identification is proposed in terms of ethically sensitive, systematic and evidence-based holistic observation over time of relevant phenotypical traits by experienced observers. Talent identification in sport should be based on the primacy of the phenotype.

• Loland, Sigmund (2014). Fairness and justice in sport. In Torres, Cesar R. (Eds.), The Bloomsbury companion to the philosophy of sport. Bloomsbury Academic. ISSN 978-1-4081-8257-4. p. 98–114.
• Loland, Sigmund (2014). The Youth Olympic Games and the Olympic ideal. In Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Parent, Milena & Houlihan, Barrie (Ed.), The Youth Olympic Games. Routledge. ISSN 978-0-415-83987-7. p. 19–33. doi: 10.4324/9780203794944-2.
• Ommundsen, Yngvar; Løndal, Knut & Loland, Sigmund (2014). Sport, children, and well-being. In Ben-Arieh, Asher; Casas, Ferran; Frønes, Ivar & Korbin, Jill E. (Ed.), Handbook of child well-being : theories, methods and policies in global perspective. Springer. ISSN 978-90-481-9062-1. p. 911–940. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-9063-8_148.
• Loland, Sigmund (2013). Sport Sciences and ECSS: Approaches and Challenges. apunts: Educación Física y Deportes. ISSN 1577-4015. p. 7–14. doi: 10.5672/apunts.2014-0983.es.(2013/1).111.00.
• Loland, Sigmund (2012). A well balanced life based on 'the joy of effort': olympic hype or a meaningful ideal? Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 6(2), p. 155–165. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2012.666990. Show summary

  A key goal in the Olympic value system of Olympism is the all-round cultivation of the individual. According to its so-called ‘fundamental principles’, Olympism is a ‘philosophy of life’ with ideals of ‘exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will, and mind’ and creating ‘a way of life based on the joy of effort’. These goals are to be reached by blending sport with culture and education. Olympism is often criticised for idealism and lack of impact in real life. At the same time Olympic ideals are intuitively appealing and have rhetorical force. The Olympic athlete stands at the very centre of the ideology. This paper examines the possibility of critical examination of Olympic ideals in terms of three different understandings of the athlete. A dualist understanding sees the athlete as divided between body and mind and with the body as a means towards the cultivation of the mind. Within this understanding Olympic ideals make little sense. A phenomenological approach attempts to overcome a dualist scheme with an understanding of the athlete as ‘embodied intentionality’. This seems fertile in an examination of Olympic ideals but can be criticised for lack of contextual sensitivity. A third perspective points towards the athlete as a social construction who can be fully understood only by examining the more extensive socio-cultural context of which the athlete is a part. The contextual understanding adds critical force to Olympic analyses but seems to lack conceptual tools to examine the vision of athletes as responsible moral agents. In conclusion the complementary functions of the three perspectives are emphasised for a proper study of Olympic ideals.

• Loland, Sigmund & Hoppeler, Hans (2012). Justifying anti-doping: The fair opportunity principle and the biology of performance enhancement. European Journal of Sport Science (EJSS). ISSN 1746-1391. 12(4), p. 347–353. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2011.566374. Show summary

  Doping is a complex moral and scientific dilemma and its prevention has led to a costly but less than perfect control system implemented worldwide by the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA). For a substance or method to be considered for the WADA Prohibited List, three criteria must be met: (1) the substance or method has the potential to enhance, or enhances, sport performance; (2) use of the substance or method represents an actual or potential health risk to the athlete; and (3) use of the substance or method violates the “spirit of sport”. The “spirit of sport” is defined as “the celebration of the human spirit, body and mind” and explained with reference to a series of ideal values: ethics, fair play, and honesty; health; excellence in performance; character and education; fun and enjoyment; teamwork; dedication and commitment; respect for rules and laws; respect for self and other participants; courage; community and solidarity. These values do not lend themselves to clear-cut interpretation and are of little help in drawing unambiguous lines in concrete cases. A proposal is made of how to interpret the “spirit of sport” in more precise ways in terms of a combination of the fair opportunity principle and a biological and evolutionary understanding of athletic performance as a result of the systematic utilization of the phenotypic plasticity of the human organism. The argument is that such understanding improves significantly the possibilities for drawing of lines when it comes to doping issues.

• Loland, Sigmund (2011). Can a ban on doping in sport be morally justified? In Savulescu, Julian; ter Meulen, Ruud & Kahane, Guy (Ed.), Enhancing human capacities. Wiley-Blackwell. ISSN 978-1-4051-9581-2. p. 326–331. doi: 10.1002/9781444393552.ch24.
• Loland, Sigmund (2011). Genetics and ethics in elite sport. In Bouchard, Claude & Hoffman, Eric P. (Ed.), Genetic and molecular aspects of sport performance. Wiley-Blackwell. ISSN 978-1-4443-3445-6. p. 353–361. doi: 10.1002/9781444327335.ch30.
• Loland, Sigmund (2011). The good coach as an enlightened generalist. In Hardman, Alun R. & Jones, Carwyn (Ed.), The Ethics of sports coaching. Routledge. ISSN 978-0-415-55774-0. p. 15–22.
• Loland, Sigmund (2010). Biomedisinsk teknologi i idrett : hvor går grensene? Etikk i praksis. ISSN 1890-3991. 4(1), p. 87–100. Show summary

  I denne artikkelen drøfter jeg bruk av biomedisinsk teknologi i prestasjonsfremmende hensikt i konkurranseidrett. Mer presist utforsker jeg mulighetene for å skille mellom etisk akseptabel og etisk uakseptabel bruk. Jeg kritiserer WADAs normative grunnlag for å forby visse biomedisinske midler og metoder, og argumenterer for at eventuelle forbud må bygge på tydeligere verdisyn på idrett. Jeg undersøker to idealtypiske syn og deres teknologiske implikasjoner. Det smale synet er liberalt og avviser begrensninger i bruk av biomedisinske midler og metoder blant voksne idrettsutøvere som dårlig begrunnet paternalisme. Det brede synet innebærer en mer restriktiv holdning og aksepterer en viss regulering av trening og prestasjonsutvikling også utenfor konkurransene. I en avsluttende del veier jeg det smale og det brede synet mot hverandre og reflekterer over hvilket syn som vil dominere framtidens idrett.

• Loland, Sigmund (2010). Fairness in sport : an ideal and its consequences, The Ethics of sports : a reader / edited by Mike McNamee. Routledge. ISSN 9780415478618. p. 116–124.
• Eichberg, Henning & Loland, Sigmund (2010). Nordic sports - from social movements via emotional to bodily movement - and back again? Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. 13(4), p. 676–690. Show summary

  When talking about bodily movement, emotional movement and social movements, one applies the same term, 'movement', to very different practical, psychological and social relations. This is not accidental. This essay inquires into the connections between these three dimensions, via an analysis of sports in the Nordic countries. In relation to social movements, Nordic sports developed historically from dynamic popular movements. The cases of Denmark, Sweden and Norway reveal very different relations between sports movements (often gymnastic movements) on the one hand and national, political and social movements on the other. In relation to emotional movement, three different ways of identity building can be identified. While elite sport favours competitive identities and oppositional patterns, mass sport stresses social discipline and fitness, and popular festivities and games give rise to emotions of encounter. The third dimension, bodily movement, is examined in a phenomenological, experiential sense. The essay concludes with some questions about how the different dimensions of movement interact.

• Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Skille, Eivind Å. & Loland, Sigmund (2010). Harmonization of anti-doping work : myth or reality? Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. 13(3), p. 418–430. doi: 10.1080/17430431003588036. Show summary

  In order to examine the implementation of the World Anti Doping Agency's (WADA) policy of global harmonization of anti-doping work, a survey was conducted among the members of the Association of National Anti-Doping Organizations (ANADO). It was revealed that in many countries, the Code was not implemented in accordance with the prescribed policy, with regard to (i) the requirement on national anti-doping organizations (NADOs) having a registered testing pool, (ii) the requirements of availability for testing of the athletes, and (iii) the requirements on sanctions. Only 23 of the 32 NADOs in the sample had a registered testing pool, only 11 NADOs required availability for testing every day, and one in five NADOs did not have any procedures for dealing with athletes who had not provided information about their whereabouts. Further, two in five did not count an incomplete test as a missed test, although this is WADA's definition. WADA's goal is harmonized anti-doping work. The implementation of anti-doping policy is challenging and is to a certain extent underpinned by processes of globalization. Even among NADOs that are considered to be among the global frontrunners in the struggle against doping significant variations exist. There is reason to believe that the global picture is even more diverse. One of WADA's key challenges is to define clearly and in operational terms which rules and sanctions are to be uniform and globally implemented, and which regulations can be open to interpretation depending on economic and socio-cultural contexts.

• Loland, Sigmund (2010). Coubertin's ideology of olympism from the perspective of the history of ideas, Rethinking the Olympics : cultural histories of the modern games. Fitness Information Technology. ISSN 9781935412052. p. 63–94.
• Loland, Sigmund (2009). Rytme : meningen med alpint. In Neumann, Iver Brynild & Steen-Johnsen, Kari (Ed.), Meningen med idretten. Unipub forlag. ISSN 978-82-7477-448-3. p. 161–176.
• Eichberg, Henning & Loland, Sigmund (2009). Sport and popular movements : towards a philosophy of moving people. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy. ISSN 1751-1321. 3(2), p. 121–138.
• Loland, Sigmund (2009). The Ethics of Performance-Enhancing Technology in Sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. ISSN 0094-8705. 36(2), p. 152–161. Show summary

  Debates on sport technologies tend to engage. Sometimes they have a unifying effect. As is evident from the 1999 establishment of the World Antidoping Agency (WADA), there is a relatively strong consensus that the use of performance-enhancing drugs, or doping, should be banned in sport. Sometimes technology causes controversies. New movement techniques, such as the so-called flop in height jumping developed by Dick Fosbury in the mid 1960s, or the V-style in ski jumping introduced by Jan Bokløv in the late 1980s, led to heated debate on the aesthetics and meaning of the sports in question. Innovative equipment such as body suits in swimming designed to reduce water friction, or shorter alpine skis with radically improved carving capabilities, are sometimes considered to challenge traditional athletic skills. Critics argue that these new means ¿technologize¿ sport. In the most serious cases, such as with potentially performance-enhancing genetic technologies, new means are seen to threaten the very idea of athletic performance as we know it (15,19). In this essay I attempt to deal with value questions linked to sport technology in a philosophically informed way.2 More specifically, I will present a normative framework within which to reason systematically about where to draw the line between valuable, acceptable, and nonacceptable technologies in sport. First, sport technology is defined and a tentative categorization of sport technologies is proposed. Secondly, three ideal-typical normative views and their implications for technology are discussed. I conclude by pointing at one particular normative view as the more promising one in this respect.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Hanstad, Dag Vidar & Loland, Sigmund (2009). Attitudes towards use of performance-enhancing substances and body modification techniques : a comparison between elite athletes and the general population. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. 12(6), p. 737–754. Show summary

  Medical and technological developments open up new possibilities for modifying the body and enhancing performance in various areas of life. This study compares attitudes among Norwegian elite athletes (n = 234) with attitudes in the general population (n = 428). Whereas vitamins, nutritional supplements and hypoxic rooms were accepted by more than 65% of both athletes and population the rejection of EPO, anabolic steroids and amphetamines were similarly clear in both groups. The athletes were in general more reluctant to use performance enhancement means and body modification techniques than the general population. A significantly higher percentage of the population than the athletes accepted a) means to avoid memory failure in old age (61.6 versus 43.2, sig. 0.000), b) means to avoid decrease in physical fitness among old people (48.6 versus 34.7, sig. 0.005), c) liposuction (30.1 versus 12.4, sig. 0.000), d) surgery for obesity (15.3 versus 9.4, sig. 0.035), e) silicon implants (9.9 versus 5.1, sig. 0.001). The athletes were significantly more satisfied with their bodies than the population (sig. 0.000). Males were more positive about the use of performance enhancement means, whereas females were more positive about body modification techniques. Males were significantly more positive about the use of a) means that increase strength and endurance (sig. 0.002, and b) means that increase sexual performance (sig 0.000). Females were significantly more positive than males about the use of liposuction (sig. 0.000), plastic surgery on the face (sig. 0.013), surgery to combat obesity (sig. 0.000) and silicon implants (sig. 0.000).

• Loland, Sigmund & Selliaas, Andreas (2009). The olympic truce : the ideal and the reality. In Georgiadis, Konstantinos & Syrigos, Angelos (Ed.), Olympic Truce : sport as a platform for peace / edited by Konstantinos Georgiadis, Angelos Syrigos. The International Olympic Truce Centre. p. 57–69.
• Hanstad, Dag Vidar & Loland, Sigmund (2009). Jagten på Michael Rasmussen : eliteatleter og deres afrapportering af whereabouts. In Christiansen, Ask Vest (Eds.), Kontrolsport : big brother blandt atleter og tilskuere. Syddansk Universitetsforlag. p. 21–34.
• Hanstad, Dag Vidar & Loland, Sigmund (2009). Where on earth is Michael Rasmussen? : is an elite level athlete's duty to provide information on whereabouts justifiable anti-doping work or an indefensible surveillance regime? In Møller, Verner; McNamee, Mike & Dimeo, Paul (Ed.), Elite sport, doping and public health / edited by Verner Møller, Mike McNamee, Paul, Dimeo. Syddansk Universitetsforlag. ISSN 9788776744106. p. 167–177.
• Hanstad, Dag Vidar & Loland, Sigmund (2009). Elite athletes' duty to provide information on their whereabouts: Justifiable anti-doping work or an indefensible surveillance regime? European Journal of Sport Science (EJSS). ISSN 1746-1391. 9(1), p. 3–10. doi: 10.1080/17461390802594219. Show summary

  In this article, we explain and reflect critically upon the athlete whereabouts reporting system in top-level sports initiated by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). This system makes it compulsory for athletes who are in a registered testing pool in their national and/or international federation to submit information about their whereabouts. In this way, athletes are required to be available for a no advance notice doping test throughout the year. If an athlete provides incorrect information or cannot be found when a no advance notice test is supposed to be taken (a missed test), he or she may be given a warning. In most sports and national anti-doping regulations, three such warnings within 18 months may be regarded as a violation of the doping regulations and may lead to exclusion from sport for between 3 months and 2 years. The system is controversial. In this article, we examine the key objections to the system and, more specifically, objections connected to ideas of justice and athletes' autonomy and right to self-determination. The argument will be a practical ethical one informed by a survey on attitudes towards the whereabouts system carried out among 236 athletes belonging to the registered testing pool in Norway. We conclude that if the basic principles of anti-doping work are accepted, WADA's whereabouts reporting system represents nothing other than an efficient extension of this work.

• Loland, Sigmund (2008). Alpine skiing technique - practical kowledge and scientific analysis. In Müller, Erich; Lindinger, Stefan & Stöggl, Thomas (Ed.), Science and Skiing IV. Meyer & Meyer Sport. p. 43–58.
• Loland, Sigmund & Caplan, Arthur (2008). Ethics of technologically constructed hypoxic environments in sport. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. ISSN 0905-7188. 18(S1), p. 70–75. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00834.x. Show summary

  With the use of technologically constructed hypoxic environments (TCHE) in soccer as our case, we propose four check points from which to evaluate new performance-enhancing technologies in sport. These are (I) Is the technology beneficial, (II) Is it safe, (III) Can fairness be assured, and (IV) Is the technology in line with the spirit of or rationale for sport? The use of TCHE is ambiguous. On the one hand, in situations with grave inequalities between teams due to lack of acclimatization of one team, TCHE can be an efficient means to even the playing field and out of concern for athlete welfare and health. On the other hand, if used as a pure performance-enhancing means to enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood independent of altitude, it belongs to a category of expert-assisted performance enhancement that may challenge athletic autonomy and the responsibility for one's own performance and, hence, the spirit of sport.

• Loland, Sigmund (2008). Hvordan kan vi forstå bevegelse? In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi : i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215012445. p. 46–54.

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• Loland, Sigmund (2015). Idrettsetikk. Akilles forlag. ISBN 9788272862502. 134 p.
• Loland, Sigmund (2013). Idrett og samfunn. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag A/S. ISBN 978-82-05-43615-2. 279 p.

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• Tjønndal, Anne ; Solstad, Tom Erik Jorung & Loland, Sigmund (2024). Idrettsteknologi og KI: hva mister og vinner vi med ny teknologi? [Internet]. Spotify.
• Tjønndal, Anne ; Solstad, Tom Erik Jorung & Loland, Sigmund (2024). Raskere, høyere, sterkere: Hva er teknologi og hva er doping? . [Internet]. Spotify.
• Hamilton, Blair R.; Martinez-Patiño, Maria Jose; Barrett, James; Seal, Leighton; Tucker, Ross & Papadopoulou, Theodora [Show all 57 contributors for this article] (2021). Response to the United Nations Human Rights Council’s Report on Race and Gender Discrimination in Sport: An Expression of Concern and a Call to Prioritise Research. Sports Medicine. ISSN 0112-1642. 51(4), p. 839–842. doi: 10.1007/s40279-020-01380-y.
• Pitsiladis, Yannis P.; Howman, David; Ladikas, Miltos; Loland, Sigmund; McNamee, Michael John & Petróczi, Andrea [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2019). The Olympia Declaration. Current sports medicine reports. ISSN 1537-890X. 18(12), p. 448–451. doi: 10.1249/JSR.0000000000000660.
• Houlihan, Barrie; Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Loland, Sigmund & Waddington, Ivan (2019). The World Anti-Doping Agency at 20: Progress and challenges. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics. ISSN 1940-6940. 11(2), p. 193–201. doi: 10.1080/19406940.2019.1617765. Show summary

  The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was established in 1999 in an atmosphere that combined frustration with the lack of leadership on anti-doping provided by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and optimism that at long last clean athletes would have protection from corrupt sports organisations, athletes, coaches and medical staff. If the optimism outweighed the frustration it was short lived as it soon became clear that the tangle of competing interests (political, commercial, legal and organisational) that had stymied the development of a harmonised policy towards doping over the previous 20 years or so had not disappeared but was simply adapting to the characteristics of the anti-doping policy regime that had WADA at its heart.

• Loland, Sigmund (2018). Response to Open Peer Commentaries on “Performance-Enhancing Drugs, Sport, and the Ideal of Natural Athletic Performance”. American Journal of Bioethics. ISSN 1526-5161. 18(7), p. w1–w3. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2018.1474963.
• Andrieu, Bernard & Loland, Sigmund (2017). The ecology of sport: From the practice of body ecology to emersed leisure. Loisir et Société. ISSN 0705-3436. 40(1), p. 1–6. doi: 10.1080/07053436.2017.1282200.
• Loland, Sigmund & McNamee, Michael (2014). Philosophy of Sport. In Maguire, Joseph (Eds.), Social Sciences in Sport. Human Kinetics. ISSN 9780736089586.
• Loland, Sigmund (2014). Idrott och etik : en introduktion. In Dartsch, Christine; Norberg, Johan R. & Pihlblad, Johan (Ed.), I gråzonen : en antologi om idrottens etiska utmaningar. Centrum för idrottsforskning. ISSN 978-91-981833-1-3. p. 7–21.
• Loland, Sigmund (2011). Fortjener toppidretten statlig støtte? In Hanstad, Dag Vidar; Breivik, Gunnar; Sisjord, Mari Kristin & Skaset, Hans B. (Ed.), Norsk Idrett - Indre spenning og ytre press. Akilles forlag. ISSN 978-82-7286-228-1. p. 111–122.
• Loland, Sigmund (2009). kampfiksing : fotballens skyggeside. Idrettsanlegg. ISSN 0802-3026. 22(1).
• Loland, Sigmund (2008). Three paradigms of elite sport.
• Loland, Sigmund (2008). Citius, altius, fortius? Moral and immoral interpretations of athletic performance.
• Loland, Sigmund (2008). The values of a physically active life in a high-technological society.
• Loland, Sigmund (2008). Catching up with the winners in the genetic lottery? Fair opportunity in sport.
• Hanstad, Dag Vidar & Loland, Sigmund (2008). Athlete Whereabouts Information, Similarities and Differences in Interpretation and Implementation within NADOs.
• Loland, Sigmund (2008). Mot en ny bevegelseskultur? Idrettsanlegg. ISSN 0802-3026. 21(3).
• Loland, Sigmund (2008). Mot en ny bevegelseskultur? ?.
• Haanes, Vidar L.; Haanes, Vidar L.; Ellefsen, Karl Otto; Haaland, Jan I. & Loland, Sigmund (2008). Sammenslåing hjelper ikke. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.). ISSN 0804-3116.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). The vulnerability thesis and its consequences for doping in sport.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). A philosophical justification of the physically active life.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). Pain in sport - three approaches.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). The mechanics and meaning of alpine skiing - epistemological notes.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). A philosophical justification of the physically active life.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). A philosophical justification of the physically active life, Abstract Book - 5th International Conference on Movement and Health.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). Athlete whereabout information: a violation of athletes' rights? Abstract Book. University of Ljubljana.
• Hanstad, Dag Vidar & Loland, Sigmund (2007). Where on earth is Michael Rasmussen? The importance of whereabout rules.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). Morality, medicine and meaning - towards an integrated justification of physical activity.
• Loland, Sigmund (2007). Kroppsøving som dannelsesfag.
• Loland, Sigmund; Bø, Kari; Fasting, Kari; Hallén, Jostein; Ommundsen, Yngvar & Roberts, Glyn [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2009). Book of Abstracts of the 14th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science, 24-27 June. Show summary

  Introduction: An increased risk for drowning is seen in males, particularly since they may overestimate their abilities, compared to women. Moran (2008) has found gender differences in New Zealand, particularly that men overestimate their ability and women underestimate their ability. The purpose of this study was to investigate the gender differences of practical swimming skills and self reported perception of swimming competence. Methods: Eighty one (81) university students were asked to fill out a questionnaire and also to perform practical tests of their swimming competence. The questions addressed their perceived competence (in a pool), their perception of whether they could perform as well outdoors in open water, and their perception of risk in five risk scenarios. The practical tests covered seven essential skills. The Mann ? Whitney U test was employed to examine statistical differences. A 0.05 level of confidence was accepted as significant. Results and Discussion: Of the seven practical tests, four showed a significant gender difference: floating ability, entry dive from pool deck, surface dive to 2m depth, and rescue towing. In every case, the women performed better than the men. Self reported perception of competence showed significant gender differences for only three of 21 items. The women reported greater competence than the men for ?the ability to stay afloat in deep water without support?, while the men reported greater competence for ?surface dive to the bottom of the deep end of the pool (4m). Eighty percent of the men reported that surface diving would be easy/very easy, while only 62% of the women reported the same. Interestingly, the women both reported greater competence and actually demonstrated greater competence than the men on the floating test. On the other hand, while the women actually performed better on surface diving, the men reported the perception that they were more competent in this skill. Lastly, there were no significant gender differences in perceived risk for the five risk scenarios. Conclusions It can be concluded that there are few gender differences both in practical and perceived ability in Norway. It does not support the hypothesis that a possible gender difference makes males more susceptible for drowning. References Moran, K. (2008). Will they sink or swim? New Zealand youth water safety knowledge and skills. Int. Journal of Aquatic Research and Education, 2(2), 114-127

• Loland, Sigmund; Bø, Kari; Fasting, Kari; Hallén, Jostein; Ommundsen, Yngvar & Roberts, Glyn [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2009). Book of Abstract. Sport Sciences: Nature, Nurture and Culture. 14th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science. ECSS/Norwegian School of Sport Sciences. Show summary

  Since the establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999 the number of actors involved in anti-doping activity has increased and the credibility of testing has improved. The aim of this paper is to (i) analyze how the different units have become increasingly interconnected, and (ii) present some suggestions to redistribute tasks between the actors. The role of international federations (IFs) will be emphasized.

• Loland, Sigmund; Bø, Kari; Fasting, Kari; Hallén, Jostein; Ommundsen, Yngvar & Roberts, Glyn [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2009). Book of Abstract. Sport Sciences: Nature, Nurture and Culture. 14th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport sciences. Oslo/Norway, June 24-27, 2009. European College of Sport Sceince. Show summary

  In a political situation where it is stressed that defense planning cannot be carried out based on one specific idea as to what kind of threats might face the armed forces in the future, and it is emphasized that the armed forces must adapt to a complex, unpredictable and rapid threat image, it is still desired to select, recruit and educate "the best soldier". It is therefore relevant to question the types of criteria used as a basis for evaluating the soldier's performance, and how "the best soldier" is to be understood when the task is unknown. This problem area was investigated by exploring two questions and the relation between them: 1. Which criteria form the basis for judging who "the best soldiers" are today? 2. Do the soldiers considered to be "the best" have any similarities in their background experience that may help to explain why they are "best"? The study is based on a hermeneutic-phenomenological interpretation of qualitative material structured and interpreted with the inspiration of Pierre Bourdieu's habitus-, capital- and field theory. The study conclude that "The best soldiers" must be understood as a constructed idea constantly reconstructed in an interaction between historical and cultural structures and the agents' interests and practices. This study can contribute to an expanded and critical understanding of the constructions that are made. It also has demonstrated that Bourdieus models represent a suitable tool for analyzing soldiers in a military field for future research.

• Loland, Sigmund; Bø, Kari; Fasting, Kari; Hallén, Jostein; Ommundsen, Yngvar & Roberts, Glyn [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2009). 14th annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science. The Norwegian School of Sport Sciences. Show summary

  Autobiographies of prominent environmentalists show that their early lives have been rich in personal experiences of nature. Notably, the early childhood experiences of philosopher and climber Arne Næss (1912-2009) inspired the development of the philosophy of deep ecology, which influenced the emergence of friluftsliv ¿ literarily free-air life - as environmental pedagogy in the 1970s. As a subject friluftsliv was though underpinned by the notion of identification with nature, and this empathy was intended to induce people to act protectively towards nature, not because ¿they think they ought to but because they feel inclined to¿. This article contributes to the understanding of complex, empathetic relationships to nature by analyzing the significance of nature and friluftsliv in the life-worlds of young Norwegians. In 2001 and 2006 nearly 200 youths aged 15 to 19, living in the sub-Arctic, a suburb of Oslo, and a southern seaside holiday site, wrote essays on their experiences of ¿nature¿. The question was an open one but stimulated a biographical approach. The youth emphasize intimate experiences of ¿the nature¿ from early childhood; connected to playing freely in neighborhoods and hiking with family and friends. They express a love for their native ¿natural worlds¿. Despite the fact that ¿nature means a lot¿ the relations to nature have at the time of writing become distanced. When looking into the future, they often dream of living close to ¿natural areas¿, which is not seen antagonistic to urban lifestyles. If they have children, they want them to grow up with the same freedom to play outside as they themselves have enjoyed. The youth are concerned about litter and reflect on ¿nature¿s life-giving significance¿, often expressed abstractly as something ¿we must of course take care of¿. However, the ways in which the youth are acting towards ¿the nature¿, e.g. activities performed and technology used, represent broad cultural diversity. In this paper, processes of self-formation nurtured by close contact with nature are discussed as naturalized embodied experiences, which have also been informed by stories on how nature should be perceived, treated and nurtured. Theories on the ecological self are critiqued for not taking socio-cultural relations into account. This study indicates that it is interrelationships between ecological processes, socio-cultural relations and transforming selves that underpin young people¿s acting towards and diverse feelings of nurturing for nature.

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