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Krein, Kevin; Parry, Jim; Martínková, Irena; Breivik, Gunnar & Humphreys, Rebekah
(2022).
Book Symposium: Kevin Krein’s Philosophy and Nature Sports.
Sport, Ethics and Philosophy.
ISSN 1751-1321.
doi:
10.1080/17511321.2022.2117842.
Vis sammendrag
This is a book symposium on Kevin Krein’s Philosophy and Nature Sports. Gunnar Breivik, Jim Parry and Irena Martínková, and Rebekah Humphreys provide critical commentary on the text. The critical comments are followed by a response from Krein. The discussion covers a broad range of topics. These include the definition of “sport,” comparisons between nature sports and friluftsliv, the role of risk in nature sports, the experience of flow and the sublime in nature sports, and the understanding of nature. Krein argues, as he does in the book and elsewhere, that nature sports provide a framework that facilitates intimate and meaningful interactions with nature. He argues further that the discussion included here shows how deeply our understanding of nature, and our understanding of nature sports, influence both our experiences within those sports and our broader experience of the world.
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Aggerholm, Kenneth & Breivik, Gunnar
(2019).
Being, Having and Belonging: Values and Ways of Engaging in Sport.
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Birch, Jens; Moe, Vegard Fusche & Breivik, Gunnar
(2018).
Knowledge, Consciousness, and Sporting Skills.
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Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders McDonald
(2017).
How willing are people to take risks? A study of various types of risk-taking in the Norwegian population.
Vis sammendrag
Military operations include various forms of risk-taking. Hence, identifying and understanding risk-taking attitudes and behaviors of potential young recruits as well as the acceptance of risk-taking in the general population seems valuable when to recruit military personnel for different types of military operations home and abroad. This paper is based on an investigation of a representative sample of the adult Norwegian population, aged 15 years and above (n=1000). The investigation looked at how risk-taking is related to demographic background and to personality factors and also focused on how risk-taking is expressed in specific risky attitudes and behaviors, including willingness to take part in dangerous military operations abroad. The study looked at positive as well as negative aspects of risk and included social, intellectual, financial, achievement-related, political, physical, ethical and existential risk-taking dimensions. The results showed that in general people are risk-averse towards financial, physical, ethical and existential risk dimensions but more positive towards social, intellectual, achievement-related and political forms of risk. Younger people, males, and people with specific personality profiles, are in general more willing to take risks. As many as 35,5 percent of young people between 15 and 24 years of age were willing to take part in dangerous military operations abroad, which is surprisingly high for a peaceful welfare society like Norway. The study is part of a project called Learning under Risk, which aims to better understand the role of risk-taking in learning before, during and after military operations.
Keywords: Risk-taking, attitudes and behaviors, Norwegian population, civil-military relation
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Sookermany, Anders McDonald; Breivik, Gunnar & Sand, Trond Svela
(2017).
Learning under Risk in Military and Society: A New Learning Model for New Challenges.
Vis sammendrag
If there’s anything history has shown, from a global perspective, it is that societal and political changes have a profound impact on the defense and security environment instigating momentous adjustments to how defense and security agencies, like the military, are both prepared and carry out their day-to-day operations. Likewise, the last couple of decades have shown that societal and political changes with deep impact to the defense and security sector come in an increasingly faster pace and, thus, seem to be relatively short lived. More so, the implication of societal and political change on the defense and security environment is hard to predict as both the resent Brexit and the US presidential election are vivid examples of – what are and will be the impact, and what are the defense and security agencies to prepare for or to adjust to and how are they to do it.
Accordingly, a pivotal concept in concert to change, as in preparation and adjustment to new challenges, is learning. Societal and political change that depict a new way of doing implies that agents of the old outmoded policy need to adjust their modus operandi, hence they need to change, implying they need to learn how to operate within the new policy so as to develop the ability to meet the new challenges and, thus, achieve the new goals. Still, how is learning to be conducted, let alone understood in a learning model, if we do not know what to learn, as if the future outcome of societal and political change is unpredictable in the present?
Preparing for the unknown, unforeseen or unpredictable is by definition a risky venture, for how are we to know that what we are investing our effort in will pay off in the unpredictable future. Thus, an investigation into risk as a dimension in connection to learning seems to be a relevant and interesting pathway towards the theme of the ERGOMAS 2017: Military and Society: New Models New Challenges.
Accordingly, this paper will focus on how we can conceptualize an understanding of Learning as a phenomenon in relation to risk as an expression of the known-unknown dichotomy, so as to develop a working tool for those who study the likes of learning when dealing with military change. Hopefully, increased knowledge in this field will enlighten those responsible for adjusting military policy to new challenges as consequence of new societal and political order.
Accordingly, the presentation will utilize a pedagogical-philosophical approach to how we can conceptualize learning in a means-end perspective. For, when we talk of learning we essentially talk of one of two different aspects of learning. Either we talk of the process of learning something, or we talk of learning as an outcome of something. More so, basically, when we deal with the process of learning we talk of learning as some kind of developmental procedure or activity like for instance facilitated programs and activities (education, training, practice, etc.), applied methods (inductive, deductive, abductive, etc.), participation (socialization, adaptation, etc.) and so on. Whilst, dealing with learning as an outcome we view learning as some kind of result, effect or consequence like for instance acquiring of new knowledge, change in behavior, social interaction and so on. If we then add that both aspects of means and ends could be understood as being either known or unknown to those involved in the learning process we end up with a concept of learning that could be divided into four quadrants each displaying some distinct features. It is these four quadrants that will form a new learning model for new challenges and, thus, work as an epistemological base for a discussion of learning under risk in military and society.
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Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald
(2016).
Attitudes and Behaviors among Soldiers in Dangerous Contexts: A Review of Literature with a Special Focus on Risk-taking and Sensation seeking.
Vis sammendrag
The article is based on a literature review of attitudes and behaviors in dangerous military contexts. Literature was gathered through an extensive search procedure in academic databases by keywords in different combinations. The first part of the article presents the main bibliographic findings. Altogether 226 articles were grouped into categories relating to main topic, type of inquiry, type of publication, institutional affiliation and geographic area. The largest thematic categories were “Combat zone experiences”, “Performance under pressure”, “Risk-taking”, “Leadership”; and “Combat motivation”. Among personality variables “Sensation seeking” had attracted most interest.
The second and largest part of the article presents a review of literature related to the two central thematic categories “risk-taking” and “sensation seeking”. Since warfare and military conflicts are dangerous pursuits one could have imagined a lot of empirical research about risk-taking and sensation seeking in the military. We have found this not to be the case. The research is small in volume and also scattered when it comes to use of theories, methods and samples of military personnel. In general, there seems to be few clear research paradigms. The results of the empirical studies show that there are adaptive as well as non-adaptive forms of risk-taking in relation to military situations. Similarly military personnel scoring high on sensation seeking have certain advantages, for instance dealing with stress and risk, but may also cause problems of various kinds. The article ends with pointing out implications for research and for practice.
Keywords: military, soldiers, danger, risk-taking, sensation seeking
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Sand, Trond Svela; Breivik, Gunnar & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald
(2016).
Gender and risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population: What about female conscription?
Vis sammendrag
The presence of risk is a crucial and unavoidable feature of many military contexts and soldiers have to be both willing and able to not only encounter risk and uncertainty, but also master it. Correspondingly, the military system is part of the society at large and the cultural and social norms and values that are in place set limits and provide frames for how the military system operates. This influences both the attitudes toward risk among young soldiers and the normative frames and conditions for the military system. Norway is one of the few NATO countries left with compulsory military service, and the only one with female conscription (introduced in 2015). It is therefore of great interest to have information about the general attitudes towards risk and risk-taking in the various parts of the population, especially among the young women and men. Previous studies have indicated that men in general and young men in particular are more willing to take risks than their female counterparts, but risk is often measured in only one dimension or the studies have been carried out in relatively small samples groups with rather homogenous characteristics. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to examine risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population and to discuss potential implications for the Armed Forces with respect to the introduction of female conscription. The results presented are from a representative population study (n = 1.000) conducted by structured telephone interviews in February 2015. The study aimed to uncover baseline data on socio-demographic variables, physical activity practices, affiliation with the armed forces, and risk-taking attitudes in eight different domains: physical, political/military, social, intellectual, performance, financial, ethical/moral. The study is a part of a larger research project – Learning under Risk (LuR) – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance.
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Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Breivik, Gunnar & Sand, Trond Svela
(2016).
Risk as a Dimension in Military Learning.
Vis sammendrag
Exposure to that which we understand to be risky is a crucial experience for many soldiers. Thus, knowledge about how soldiers perceive and experience risk in a military context seems to be of utmost importance and therefore should be recognized in the process of acquiring military skills so as to better prepare soldiers and their units for future assignments. Still, the impression is that knowledge about risk as a dimension in military learning has not received enough attention in neither the military community nor the scholarly debate on risk-taking attitudes and behaviors among military personnel. Thus, the research-program “Learning under risk” (LuR) has been launched to describe, understand and explain the risk dimension in soldiers’ learning before, during and after participation in military operations.
This presentation will focus on how we can conceptualize an understanding of Learning as a phenomenon in relation to risk so as to develop a working tool for those who study the likes of learning when dealing with risk in general and our LuR research-program in particularly. Hopefully, increased knowledge in this field may be used to improve military organizations’ training and performance culture, and potentially increase their operational capability.
Accordingly, the presentation will utilize a pedagogical-philosophical approach to how we can conceptualize learning in a means-end perspective. For, when we talk of learning we essentially talk of one of two different aspects of learning. Either we talk of the process of learning something, or we talk of learning as an outcome of something. More so, basically, when we deal with the process of learning we talk of learning as some kind of developmental procedure or activity like for instance facilitated programs and activities (education, training, practice, etc.), applied methods (inductive, deductive, abductive, etc.), participation (socialization, adaptation, etc.) and so on. Whilst, dealing with learning as an outcome we view learning as some kind of result, effect or consequence like for instance acquiring of new knowledge, change in behavior, social interaction and so on. If we then add that both aspects of means and ends could be understood as being either known or unknown to those involved in the learning process we end up with a concept of learning that could be divided into four quadrants each displaying some distinct features. It is these four quadrants that will form an epistemological bases for a discussion of learning in relation to risk.
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Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Sand, Trond Svela & Breivik, Gunnar
(2015).
The Meaning of Risk in Soldiers’ Learning Before, During and After Military Operations.
Vis sammendrag
The purpose of this panel is to present some central ideas and research with respect to the meaning of risk in soldiers’ learning before, during and after military operations. The panel has its origin in a newly started project at the Norwegian Defence University College entitled “Learning under risk” (LuR).
Exposure to different types of risk environments is a crucial experience for many soldiers. Knowledge about how soldiers experience different types of risk in military situations is of utmost importance and should be transferred to training and preparation to better prepare military personnel for future assignments. However, the impression is that knowledge about different types of risk, physical, intellectual, social, ethical etc., and the positive and negative aspects of risks and risk-taking have not received enough attention in the military community. Increased knowledge in this field may be used to improve military organizations’ training- and performance culture and potentially increase their operational capability. Thus, the overall scope of this panel is to increase the knowledge about risk and its positive and negative meaning for military performance.
In the initial stage of the LuR-project it has been crucial to get an overview of research related to soldiers’ risk-taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. This work has been conducted through an extensive search procedure in academic databases and is to be published as a research bibliography entitled “Military Personnel in Dangerous Contexts: Risk-taking Attitudes and Behaviors“ during the spring of 2015. The presented panel is made up of invited scholars on the bases of analyses made in the making of the bibliography. More so, the panel is comprised of scholars whose research on traits of risk in military contexts came out as being both relevant for the LuR-project and at the same time displays the field’s interdisciplinary scope. Accordingly, the papers are dealing with risk using both qualitative and quantitative method, covering a review of the research literature, phenomenological interviews with soldiers about their experiences of hand-to-hand combat, surveys of the role of personality including dimensions of operational stress and forms of unacceptable risk taking with small arms, sensation seeking and need for structure, and risk-taking attitudes in both military and civilian populations.
For further details, please find abstracts for each paper attached to this panel proposal. However, we would like to stress that although each paper represents different facets of risk and risk-taking among soldiers they are linked together by including a discussion of the research and findings and its potential consequences for learning among military personnel.
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Sand, Trond Svela; Breivik, Gunnar & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald
(2015).
Investigating risk and risk-taking attitudes in the Armed Forces: A baseline study in the Norwegian population.
Vis sammendrag
The purpose of this paper is to present results from a study of risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population. The military system is part of a larger society and the cultural and social norms and values of the society set limits and provide frames for how the military system operates. The Norwegian welfare society has shown during the last decades gradually less tolerance for risks and risk-taking and more focus on control and safety. This influences both the attitudes toward risk among young soldiers and the normative frames and conditions for the military system. It is therefore of great interest for the military system and its various parts to have information about the general developments of attitudes towards risk and risk-taking in the various parts of the population, especially the young people. The study is a part of a larger research project – “Learning under risk” (LuR) – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. The study was conducted by telephone interviews with a representative sample from the Norwegian population and aimed to uncover baseline data on socio-demographic variables, physical activity practices, affiliation with the armed forces, and risk-taking attitudes in different domains (physical, political/military, social, intellectual, performance, economical, ethical/moral). The findings are discussed in relation to their potential relevance for the Norwegian Armed Forces in general, with a particular focus on consequences for recruitment strategies and training of personnel.
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Breivik, Gunnar; Sand, Trond Svela & Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald
(2015).
Risk-taking Attitudes and Behaviors among Soldiers in Dangerous Contexts: A Literature review.
Vis sammendrag
The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of research related to risk taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. The presentation is part of a larger project at the Norwegian defense University College – “Learning under Risk” – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. To get an overview of previous research in this field is needed to uncover current knowledge status. The review is based on literature gathered through an extensive search procedure in academic databases by key words in different combinations (270 search terms altogether) followed by a review of reference lists and searches in Google scholar. In this article the focus will be on literature found under two headings; sensation seeking and risk-taking. The main findings will be analyzed and discussed as well as suggestions for future research in the area.
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Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Sand, Trond Svela & Breivik, Gunnar
(2015).
Risk-Taking Attitudes and Behaviors among Military Personnel in Dangerous Contexts - A Categorized Research Bibliography.
Moving soldiers - Soldaten i bevegelse.
ISSN 1891-8751.
4(1),
s. 12–52.
Vis sammendrag
THE PURPOSE OF this edition of Moving Soldiers is to present a categorized overview
of research related to risk-taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. The
bibliography is grounded in a larger project – “Learning under Risk” – which has
been launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military
performance. In order to gain an overview of previous research in this field, it is
necessary to uncover the current knowledge status. Thus, what is required is a
collection of references to journal articles, books and chapters in books, and Ph.D
dissertations that deal with soldiers’ experiences and attitudes towards risk and
risk-taking contexts. The gathering of references has been carried out by searching
academic databases by keywords in different combinations (270 search terms
altogether),
followed by a review of reference lists and searches in Google Scholar. The
procedure uncovered 226 references found to be relevant for this bibliography,
and
which have been categorized into the following 12 categories: Combat motivation;
Combat zone experience; Fear and courage; On killing; Leadership; Life threat;
Performance
under pressure; Post traumatic growth; Risk-taking; Sensation seeking;
Warrior ethos; Well-being. The findings are discussed with a view to relevance for
the project “Learning under Risk”.
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Breivik, Gunnar; Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald & Sand, Trond Svela
(2015).
Risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population: Any consequences for the Armed Forces?
Vis sammendrag
The purpose of this paper is to present results from a study of risk-taking attitudes in the Norwegian population. The military system is part of a larger society and the cultural and social norms and values of the society set limits and provide frames for how the military system operates. The Norwegian welfare society has during the last decades shown gradually less tolerance for risks and risk-taking and more focus on control and safety. This influences both the attitudes toward risk among young soldiers and the normative frames and conditions for the military system. It is therefore of great interest for the military system and its various parts to have information about the general developments of attitudes towards risk and risk-taking in the various parts of the population, especially the young people.
The study is a part of a larger research project – “Learning under risk” – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. The study will be conducted by telephone interviews with a representative sample from the Norwegian population and aims to uncover baseline data on socio-demographic variables, physical activity practices, affiliation with the armed forces, and risk-taking attitudes in different areas (physical, political/military, social, intellectual, performance, economical, ethical/moral). The findings will be discussed in relation to their potential relevance for the Norwegian Armed Forces in general, with a particular focus on consequences for recruitment strategies and training of personnel. The results from the population study will further be used as reference tool for future studies on risk-taking attitudes among different groups in the Norwegian Armed Forces.
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Sand, Trond Svela; Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald & Breivik, Gunnar
(2015).
Research on Military Personnel in Dangerous Contexts: Risk-taking Attitudes and Behaviors.
Vis sammendrag
The purpose of this paper is to present a categorized overview of research related to risk-taking attitudes and behaviors in military contexts. The presentation is a part of a larger project – “Learning under risk” – which is launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its meaning for military performance. To get an overview of previous research in this field is therefore needed to uncover current knowledge status. Thus, collecting references to journal articles, books and chapter in books, and Ph.D dissertations that deals with soldiers’ experiences and attitudes towards risk and risk-taking contexts is wanted. The gathering of references has been carried out by searching academic databases by keywords in different combinations (270 search terms altogether) followed by review of reference lists and searches in Google Scholar. Relevant references have been selected by reading abstracts. The gathered references has been categorized and analyzed, and the findings will be discussed with respect to relevance for the project “Learning under risk”.
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Sookermany, Anders Mc Donald; Breivik, Gunnar & Sand, Trond Svela
(2015).
Learning under risk: A project studying soldiers’ learning before, during and after military operations.
Vis sammendrag
The purpose of this paper is to present some central ideas and findings from an ongoing research project, “Learning under risk”. Exposure to different types of risky environments is a crucial experience for many soldiers. Knowledge about how soldiers experience different types of risk in military situations is of utmost importance and should be transferred to training and preparation to better prepare personnel for future assignments. However, the impression is that knowledge about different types of risk, both physical, mental, social and so on, and the positive and negative aspects of risks and risk-taking has not received enough attention in the military community. Thus, the project “Learning under risk” has been launched to increase the knowledge about risk and its positive and negative meaning for military performance. Increased knowledge in this field may be used to improve military organizations’ training- and performance culture and potentially increase their operational capability. The overall aim of the project is to describe, understand and explain the risk dimension in soldiers’ learning before, during and after participation in military operations. We will present some theoretical considerations with respect to risk and risk taking in general, followed by a discussion of some central findings from the project and end by a discussion of how soldiers can be better equipped to learn and cope in risky military situations.
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Breivik, Gunnar & Sandseter, Ellen Beate Hansen
(2014).
Vi må akseptere småskader.
Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.).
ISSN 0804-3116.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2012).
Kamp om värden :(Heather L. Reid Athletics and Philosophy in the Ancient World: Contests of Virtue).
Idrottsforum.org - Nordic Sport Studies Forum.
ISSN 1652-7224.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2012).
Gylne øyeblikk : om det unyttige i idretten.
I Varkøy, Øivind (Red.),
Om nytte og unytte.
Abstrakt forlag.
ISSN 978-82-7935-334-8.
s. 127–146.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2011).
Developing Modern Soldiers: A Critical View on Military Education, Training and Learning.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2011).
Fysisk aktivitet, psykisk helse og det gode liv, Hvordan henger de sammen?
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2011).
Vestkysten eller døden. Hva kan Nansen lære oss om utfordring, stress og psykisk helse?
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Breivik, Gunnar & Morstad, Marius
(2011).
The art of teaching special force soldiers the necessary skills to operate in vertical and risky terrain.
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Thoren, Anne-Karine Halvorsen; Breivik, Gunnar & Rafoss, Kolbjørn
(2011).
Hvordan skal Staten bruke penger på fysisk aktivitet?
www.sportsanalyse.no.
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Skille, Eivind Åsrum & Breivik, Gunnar
(2011).
Telemark skiing: the ultimate Norwegian sport and a class phenomenon.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2011).
Idrettsillusjonen.
Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.).
ISSN 0804-3116.
s. 5–5.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2009).
Friluftsliv and outdoor education - the deep ecological approach.
Vis sammendrag
The purpose of the paper is to present and discuss the idea of ?friluftsliv? or outdoor life by focusing on Arne Næss, his ideas about deep ecology and the consequences these ideas have for outdoor education. The Norwegian word ?friluftsliv? was coined by among others, Henrik Ibsen, and means literally ?life in the open air?. But the word is connected to certain deeper ideas and ideals (Reed & Rothenberg, 1993). Friluftsliv involves certain values, a certain ideology of being outdoors with simple means, being free and close to nature and with a deep respect for the wilderness. Nature is thus considered a central part of the Norwegian national identity (Breivik, 1989; Reed & Rothenberg, 1993). In the beginning of the 20th century and up towards the 1960s sport and friluftsliv seemed to flourish side by side. But old tensions surfaced in the 1960s and 1970s when elite sport developed into professional show sport. Leading friluftsliv ideologists, like Faarlund and Kvaløy Sætereng, felt that friluftsliv and sport had to split completely and that friluftsliv was the only acceptable physical culture from an ecological point of view (Faarlund, 1993; Kvaløy Sætereng, 1993). In the 1960s and 1970s study programs in friluftsliv were developed at various university colleges in Norway. The theoretical foundation for the new area of study was sought in the new ecological disciplines and especially ?deep ecology?. It was Arne Næss (1912-2009) who in 1973 coined the term ?deep ecology? (Næss, 1973). Later he developed his own systematic philosophical version of deep ecology called ?ecosophy T? (Næss, 1990) From an ecophilosophical platform he sketched how friluftsliv should be experienced and practiced (Næss, 1994). The paper will be divided into five sections. The first section gives a short presentation of Arne Næss, his life and philosophy. The second section examines relevant aspects of ecosophy T, especially the ideas of ?self-realization? and of ?increasing identification with all beings?. In the third section Arne Næss? thoughts on outdoor life are presented and discussed, especially the ideas of ?hilaritas? and ?manysidedness?. The last section will give examples of Arne Næss? own practice and discuss implications of his philosophy for outdoor education. References Breivik, G. (1989) ?F.Nansen and the Norwegian outdoor life tradition.? Scand. J. Sports Sci. 11(1):9-14 Faarlund,N. (1993) ?A Way Home?. In: Reed & Rothenberg (1993:157-169) Kvaløy Sætereng, S.(1993) ?Complexity and Time: Breaking the Pyramid?s Reign?. In Reed & Rothenberg (1993:116-146) Næss, A. (1973) ?The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movements? Inquiry 16, 95-100 Næss, A. (1990) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Næss, A. (1994) ?Notes on the Philosophy of Sport?. Manuscript. Reed, P. & Rothenberg, D.(eds.) (1993) Wisdom in the Open Air. University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2009).
Can sport become ecologically sound?
Vis sammendrag
The debate about global warming has brought new fuel to the discussion of an environmentally sound lifestyle and a sustainable development of human societies. Sport is certainly a part of the problem and also of the solution, since ?with few exceptions, sport as it is practiced is not sustainable? (Chernushenko, 1994:4). The winter Olympic Games at Lillehammer 1994 and the summer Olympics in Sydney 2000 focused on ?green ideals?, but without much lasting effects. The goal of the presentation is to show how environmental concerns need to be addressed in the future. I will raise the following questions: 1) Gregory Bateson (1973) thought that the ecological crisis was due to three root causes: a) technological progress, b) population increase, c) hubris: man against nature. The systemic interaction of these three factors constitutes the threat to a sustainable future. How is modern sport involved in this interaction? 2) Modern sport is built on a combination of three ideas: a) competition, b) progress, c) ethical values, like fair play. International elite sport has seen a decrease in ethical focus and an increase in hard competition and quest for records. Supported by advanced technology and economic growth elite sport, according to some, has become the spearhead of a reckless consumer culture that is going in the opposite direction of sustainability. Other would succinctly respond that the concept of ?sport? includes not only elite sport but also more sustainable sports like jogging, hiking, eastern martial arts, fitness, lifestyle sport. The movement culture has many faces and not all of them are environmentally ugly. I will present examples of this diversity. 3) Arne Næss (1973) distinguished between shallow and deep ecology. Without doubt shallow ecology focusing on a mild redressing and ecological haul over of present consumer culture can be useful for most sports. Sport is tapping ecological resources and polluting the environment in many ways (travel, equipment, facilities). How could sport organizations contribute to a ?greening of sports? in all these areas? 4) A more radical solution would be to go to the roots of the problem and develop a form of sport that was built on ?richness in ends, simpleness in means? (Næss, 1990). Such sports would not focus on relentless record-setting, winning at all costs and with the most cutting-edge equipment. The question is whether the deep ecological attitude is a realistic one. How far can ?homo oecologicus? (Seewald, Kronbichler, Groessing, 1998) be developed in sport settings? References Bateson, G. (1973) Steps to an Ecology of Mind. St. Albans: Paladin. Chernushenko, D (1994) Greening our Games. Ottawa: Centurion. Næss, A. (1973) ?The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movements? Inquiry 16, 95-100 Næss, A. (1990) Ecology, Community and Lifestyle. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Seewald, F., Kronbichler, E. and S. Groessing (1998) Sportökologie. Wiesbaden: Limpert Verlag.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Dopingens gråsoner - om kunstig manipulering av kroppens utseende og prestasjonsevne.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Menneske og natur.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Kvifor vera fysisk aktiv - eit innspel i helsedebatten frå ein samfunnsforskar.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Barns behov for aktivitet og utfordring.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Hvorfor ble de beste best?
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Konkurranse og samarbeid - kan det forenes?
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Intuisjon, ekspertene eller massen - hvem kan jeg stole på?
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Sport, space and awareness.
Vis sammendrag
Several philosophers of sport have discussed the role of the body in relation to human movement in general and sport in particular. Bodily movement has become an important and interesting topic in recent philosophy, both in analytic and phenomenological versions. Philosophy of mind has taken a fresh interest in the body, due to the developments in the intersection between psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience and robotics. Similarly philosophers in the phenomenological tradition combine Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty with brain research and empirical psychology. Very often it is the bodily movement in relation to perception, cognition and action that is focused. In this paper I will try to show that the body itself is revealed under new aspects in these studies. My focus will be on the body as it is revealed in bodily activities. Especially the basic spatial orientations of the body and the proprioceptive awareness of the body parts will be discussed. The paper is explorative more than argumentative in character since I try to open up some new areas for discussion in the philosophy of sport.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
Ekstremsport : et samfunnsvitenskabelig perspektiv.
?.
11(3),
s. 18–20.
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Breivik, Gunnar
(2007).
En oppegående jubilant [Leder].
?.
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Rafoss, Kolbjørn & Breivik, Gunnar
(2012).
Fysisk aktivitet; omfang, tilrettelegging og sosial ulikhet – en revisjon.
Helsedirektoratet.
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Thoren, Anne-Karine Halvorsen; Sand, Trond Svela; Breivik, Gunnar; Rafoss, Kolbjørn; Tangen, Jan Ove & Bergaust, Tore Edvard
[Vis alle 7 forfattere av denne artikkelen]
(2011).
Fysisk aktivitet; omfang, tilrettelegging og sosial ulikhet.
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