Reidar Säfvenbom

• Säfvenbom, Reidar; Strittmatter, Anna-Maria & Bernhardsen, Guro Pauck (2023). Developmental Outcomes for Young People Participating in Informal and Lifestyle Sports: A Scoping Review of the Literature, 2000–2020. Social Sciences. ISSN 2076-0760. 12(5). doi: 10.3390/socsci12050299. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The aim of this study is to review the literature on lifestyle sports and lifestyle sport contexts with regard to the developmental potential they may represent in young people’s everyday lives. The review applies a relational developmental systems approach to youth development. The eligibility criteria are based on the phenomenon of interest and outcomes. Hence, we include studies examining the associations between young people performing lifestyle sports and potential developmental outcomes: mental, biological, social, and behavioral. The present study shows that the volume of research on informal lifestyle sport is rather extensive and that studies on the way these activity contexts may affect developmental processes in youth are diverse and wide ranging. The studies suggest that performing lifestyle sports may have several beneficial health and skills outcomes. Furthermore, positive associations are suggested between involvement in lifestyle sport contexts such as climbing, snowboarding, parkour, tricking, kiting, and surfing and (a) mental outcomes such joy, happiness, freedom, euphoria, motivation, self-efficacy, and well-being; (b) social outcomes such as gender equality, network building, social inclusion, interaction, friendship; and (c) behavioral outcomes such as identity, creativity, and expressions of masculinity and/or femininity. The review performed indicates that lifestyle sport contexts are flexible according to needs and desires that exist among the practitioners and that the human and democratic origins of these contexts make them supportive for positive movement experiences and for positive youth development. The findings have implications for PE teachers, social workers, policymakers, sport organizations, and urban architecture, in that providing lifestyle sport opportunities in the everyday lives of young people will foster a holistic development in a positive way.

• Haugen, Tommy; Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Laxdal, Aron Gauti; Kloster, Benjamin Wang & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2021). Forholdet mellom elevers motivasjon for kroppsøvingsfaget, motivasjonsklima og tilhørighet i kroppsøvingstimene, og deres intensjon om å være fysisk aktive etter endt obligatorisk skolegang. Journal for Research in Arts and Sports Education. ISSN 2535-2857. 5(3), p. 65–85. doi: 10.23865/jased.v5.3285. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Studiens hensikt var å undersøke forholdet mellom elevers tilhørighet i kroppsøvingstimene, deres opplevelse av motivasjonsklimaet i faget og deres intensjon om å være fysisk aktive etter endt obligatorisk skolegang, samt å undersøke i hvilken grad autonom og kontrollert motivasjon medierte det ovennevnte forholdet. Tverrsnittsdata fra 2610 avgangselever ved ungdoms- og videregående skoler fra fire forskjellige geografiske områder i Norge dannet grunnlaget for mediasjonsanalysen. Denne målte indirekte effekter ved hjelp av en bias-korrigert bootstrapping metode. Resultatene viste at opplevd tilhørighet og opplevd mestringsklima i faget var positivt assosiert med elevers intensjoner om å være fysisk aktive etter endt skolegang, både uavhengig av og mediert gjennom elevenes autonome motivasjon. Prestasjonsklima var imidlertid negativt assosiert med intensjon gjennom amotivasjon, og positivt assosiert med intensjon gjennom kontrollert motivasjon. Studien viser at opplevelser av gode relasjoner mellom alle deltakende parter i kroppsøvingstimene, samt mestringsorientert motivasjonsklima, kan være viktig for en fysisk aktiv livsstil gjennom intensjon om fysisk aktivitet etter endt skolegang.

• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Moen, Kjersti Mordal & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2021). A relational perspective on students' experiences of participation in an ‘Interest-based physical education’ programme. European Physical Education Review. ISSN 1356-336X. doi: 10.1177/1356336X211023536. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  While many students participate autonomously in physical education (PE), research shows that students who do not participate in leisure sport are less likely to perceive PE positively. Attempting to optimise the reciprocal student (↔) PE relationship and secure equal opportunities for learning in PE, schools in a Norwegian county developed an ‘Interest-based PE’ programme offering students a choice of two PE approaches: a sports approach (SA), focused on sports activities, and an explorative approach (EA), focused on alternative movement activities. Based on a process-relational understanding of adolescent development and learning, this study seeks a deeper understanding of changes in the PE experiences of students in the programme. Sixteen students (ages 17–18 years) who had participated in Interest-based PE for 18 months participated in qualitative semi-structured one-on-one interviews where they reflected on their relationship with PE prior to and during the programme. Data were subject to inductive interpretive thematic analysis showing that ‘the role of sports in PE’ framed student ↔ PE relations and that this sports discourse regulated the relations, also within the Interest-based PE programme. The separation of students into an EA and a SA accentuated the sports discourse and students’ sports competencies, contributing to segregation on the basis of students' confidence, competence and ability in sports. Based on this study, we question the assumption that differentiation programmes, such as Interest-based PE, will optimise student ↔ subject relations if these relations remain governed by the sports discourse, rather than the PE curriculum.

• Solberg, Runar Barstad; Steene-Johannessen, Jostein; Anderssen, Sigmund Alfred; Ekelund, Ulf; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Haugen, Tommy [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2021). Effects of a school-based physical activity intervention on academic performance in 14-year old adolescents: a cluster randomized controlled trial – the School in Motion study. BMC Public Health. ISSN 1471-2458. 21. doi: 10.1186/s12889-021-10901-x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: School-based physical activity interventions evaluating the effect on academic performance usually includes children. We aimed to investigate the effect of a nine-month, school-based physical activity intervention titled School in Motion (ScIM) on academic performance in adolescents. Methods: Thirty secondary schools in Norway were cluster-randomized into three groups: the Physically active learning (PAL) group (n = 10), the Don’t worry – Be Happy (DWBH) group (n = 10) or control (n = 10). Target dose in both intervention groups was 120 min/week of additional PA during school hours. Parental consent was obtained from 2084 adolescent students (76%). Standardized national tests in reading and numeracy was conducted at baseline and at the end of the intervention. We used linear mixed model to test intervention effects. We found significant intervention effects in numeracy and reading among students in both interventions when compared with controls. Results: The mean difference in change in numeracy was 1.7 (95% CI: 0.9 to 2.5; Cohen’s d = 0.12) and 2.0 (95% CI: 1.4 to 2.7; Cohen’s d = 0.23) points in favour of students in the PAL and DWBH intervention, respectively. Similar results were found for reading, where the mean difference in change was 0.9 (95% CI 0.2 to 1.6; Cohen’s d = 0.06) and 1.1 (95% CI 0.3 to 1.9; Cohen’s d = 0.18) points in favour of students in the PAL and DWBH intervention, respectively. When conducting intention to treat analysis with imputed data the estimates were attenuated and some no longer significant. Conclusion: The ScIM study demonstrates that two different school-based PA interventions providing approximately 120 min of additional PA weekly over nine months, significantly improved numeracy and reading performance in 14-year old students compared with controls. However, the results should be interpreted with caution as the effect sizes reported were very small or small and the estimates were attenuated when conducting intention to treat analysis. Despite this, our results are still positive and suggest that PA interventions are viable models to increase academic performance among adolescents.

• Kolle, Elin; Solberg, Runar Barstad; Säfvenbom, Reidar; Dyrstad, Sindre Mikal; Berntsen, Sveinung & Resaland, Geir Kåre [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2020). The effect of a school-based intervention on physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness and muscle strength: the School in Motion cluster randomized trial. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. ISSN 1479-5868. 17. doi: 10.1186/s12966-020-01060-0. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Physical activity (PA) declines throughout adolescence, therefore PA promotion during this period is important. We analyzed the effect of two school-based PA interventions on daily PA levels, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and muscle strength among adolescents. Methods: For the nine-month School in Motion intervention study (ScIM), we cluster-randomized 30 Norwegian secondary schools (N = 2084, mean age [SD] = 14 [0.3] years) to one of three study arms. The physically active learning (PAL) intervention included 30 min physically active learning, 30 min PA and a 60 min physical education (PE) lesson per week. The Don’t worry-Be happy (DWBH) intervention included a 60 min PA lesson and a 60 min PE lesson per week, both tailored to promote friendships and wellbeing. Both intervention arms were designed to engage the adolescents in 120 min of PA per week in addition to recess and mandatory PE lessons. The control group continued as per usual, including the standard amount of mandatory PE. PA (main outcome) was assessed by accelerometers, CRF and muscle strength (secondary outcomes) were assessed by an intermittent running test and selected tests from the Eurofit test battery. Results: Daily PA and time spent in moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) decreased in all groups throughout the intervention. The mean difference in PA level and MVPA for participants in the PAL-intervention arm was 34.7 cpm (95% CI: 4.1, 65.3) and 4.7 min/day (95% CI: 0.6, 8.8) higher, respectively, compared to the control arm. There were no significant intervention effects on daily PA level, MVPA or time spent sedentary for adolescents in the DWBH-intervention arm. Adolescents in the PAL-intervention arm increased distance covered in the running test compared to controls (19.8 m, 95% CI: 10.4, 29.1), whilst a negative intervention effect was observed among adolescents in the DWBH-intervention arm (− 11.6 m, 95% CI: − 22.0, − 1.1). Conclusion: The PAL-intervention resulted in a significantly smaller decrease in daily PA level, time spent in MVPA, and increased CRF compared to controls. Our results indicate that a teacher-led intervention, including three unique intervention components, is effective in curbing the decline in PA observed across our cohort and improving CRF.

• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Haugen, Tommy; Ivarsson, Andreas & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2020). The temporal relations of adolescents' basic need satisfaction in physical education and global self-worth. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology (JSEP). ISSN 0895-2779. 42(6), p. 480–489. doi: 10.1123/JSEP.2019-0030. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigated the temporal relations of adolescents’ basic need satisfaction in physical education (PE) and global self-worth in a sample of 3,398 lower and upper secondary school students (49% boys, 51% girls, average age T1 = 15.00, SD = 1.79). Four models and competing hypotheses were tested, and the model with bidirectional paths specified showed the best fit to the data. The bidirectional effect estimates suggest not only that basic need satisfaction in PE predicts global self-worth development but also that adolescents’ perceptions of global self-worth predict the degree to which they experience basic need satisfaction in PE. Findings could suggest that students with low global self-worth are less sensitive to basic need support in PE. These students may need personally tailored need-supportive initiatives in order to develop basic need satisfaction in PE and, thus, global self-worth through PE.

• Mikalsen, Hilde Kristin; Bentzen, Marte; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Lagestad, Pål Arild (2020). Trajectories of Physical Activity Among Adolescents in the Transition From Primary to Secondary School. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. ISSN 2624-9367. 2. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00085. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research on physical activity (PA) behavior reveals an overall decrease worldwide from early childhood and throughout adulthood. The ability to illuminate which factors promote activity for whom and in which phase of life, therefore, becomes a key concept in extending our understanding of individuals' physical activity trajectories. Accordingly, this study investigates latent trajectories of objectively measured PA in adolescents (n = 306) over 3 years from ages 13 to 15. Further, it was tested whether eagerness for physical activity, perceived athletic competence, and parental support were associated with the different trajectories of PA. Latent class growth analysis revealed two PA trajectories (trajectory 1: “decrease from very high” and trajectory 2: “steeper decrease from high”). Trajectory 1 had a higher PA level at baseline and less PA decline than trajectory 2. Trajectory 1, “decrease from very high,” was associated with higher levels of eagerness for physical activity and perception of competence at all three time points. Furthermore, the effect size of differences between trajectory 1, “decrease from very high,” and trajectory 2, “steeper decrease from high,” increased from baseline (age 13, seventh grade) to posttest (age 15, ninth grade). This finding indicates a stronger experience of PA as enjoyable, personally relevant, and self-confirming behavior (i.e., “I regard myself as a person who exercises”) within the most active adolescents and even stronger as they get older. Consistent with previous research, the PA level declined from seventh to ninth grade. Being more eager for PA and perceiving oneself more as athletically competent is related to higher levels of PA. This highlights the importance of optimizing environmental factors that increase adolescents' experience of eagerness for physical activity and physical athletic competence.

• Nerstad, Christina; Buch, Robert; Dysvik, Anders & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2020). Stability of Individuals’ Definitions of Success and the Influence of Perceived Motivational Climate: A Longitudinal Perspective. Frontiers in Psychology. ISSN 1664-1078. 11, p. 1–13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01326. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the present study, we investigated the stability and malleability of cadets’ definitions of success (mastery and performance goal orientations) contextualized within a certain motivational climate (mastery and performance climates). Based on data from three military academies, the results revealed that cadets’ goal orientations and their perceptions of the motivational climate remained relatively stable throughout the 2 years of study across three time-points. We also found that a mastery climate predicted individual mastery orientation, and that a performance climate predicted individual performance orientation. These findings contribute to achievement goal theory by clarifying the importance of considering goal orientation contextualized within a certain motivational climate over time. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Haugen, Tommy; Ivarsson, Andreas & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Development of basic psychological need satisfaction in physical education - Effects of a two-year PE programme. Journal for Research in Arts and Sports Education. ISSN 2535-2857. 3(2), p. 4–21. doi: 10.23865/jased.v3.1375. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research shows that sports-active students experience more basic need satisfaction (autonomy, competence, relatedness) in physical education (PE) than their non-sports-active peers, and thus, reap most of the benefits of PE. This study aimed to investigate the role of a two-year PE programme, referred to as Interest-based PE, in contributing to students’ basic need satisfaction in PE, and in particular, to assess potential basic needs-benefits among students who were not involved in leisure-time sport. Among 693 students, 348 were offered a choice of two different PE approaches (“explorative” vs. “sports” approach) for the next two years, while the remaining students continued to receive traditional PE. Girls, non-sports-active students, and students who experienced less need satisfaction in PE at baseline were more likely to choose the explorative approach, thereby signifying a wish for a less sports-centred PE. However, no significant differences in autonomy, competence, and relatedness need satisfaction were identified between Interest-based PE groups and their respective control groups over the course of the programme. Sports active students experienced more gains in relatedness need satisfaction than non-sports active students over the course of the programme, suggesting that challenges in promoting equal opportunities for learning in PE may require more than “Interest-based PE”.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Stjernvang, Guro (2019). Lifestyle sport contexts as self-organized epistemic cultures. Sport, Education and Society. ISSN 1357-3322. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2019.1657080. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Compared to traditional athletes and PE students, self-organized lifestyle sport practitioners usually have no podiums to reach or grades to earn. They have no authorized instructor available, but seem to treat this apparent deficiency as an opportunity to facilitate their own learning processes. However, from a traditional learning perspective, it can be challenging to understand how these processes unfold. Drawing on theoretical concepts from the educational sociologist Knorr Cetina, the aim of this study is therefore to understand how a self-organized mixed group of trickers, B-boys, and free-runners facilitate knowledge creation when no instructors guide or control their work. Based on observations and interviews we found that the practitioners’ knowledge developed in a continuous and invigorating circuit between a worldwide gym on the internet where the practitioners searched for updated knowledge, and the local gym where they practiced knowledge development as intra- and inter-disciplinary embodied interactions. The knowledge object conveyed by the practitioners as ‘kinesthetic understanding’ was not a fixed a-priori product that could be completely achieved, and the practitioners’ acceptance of the knowledge object’s essential incompleteness seemed to create a never-ending desire to glimpse the unattainable. The group of tumblers studied in this paper represent an alternative epistemic practice that should be explored in physical education contexts. However, such exploration requires the development of an affective and processual language that reflects the relational intimacy between students and their knowledge objects, rather than a constative language reflecting distance, achievement, and external assessment.

• Nerstad, Christina G. L.; Buch, Robert & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Goal Orientation and Perceived Motivational Climate: A Longitudinal Perspective. Academy of Management Proceedings. ISSN 0065-0668. doi: 10.5465/ambpp.2019.3.
• Løvoll, Helga Synnevåg; Bentzen, Marte & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Development of positive emotions in physical education: Person-centered approach for understanding motivational stability and change. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. ISSN 0031-3831. 64(7), p. 999–1014. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2019.1639818. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A person-centered exploration of positive emotions in relation to selfdetermination theory might shed light on the hidden dynamics in the motivational processes in physical education (PE). In the present longitudinal study, PE students were followed during three years at secondary school (N = 1681). Latent class growth analysis revealed a three-class solution: The largest class (n = 1121) reported high levels of positive emotions over the three years. The second largest class (n = 275) reported low levels of positive emotions over the three years, and the smallest class (n = 112) reported a decrease in positive emotions over the three years. Further, the results revealed an association between the intensity of positive emotions, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and quality of motivation. This person-centered study contributes to the identification of students’ emotional engagement in PE as an indicator for understanding their processes of learning, development, and well-being.

• Wiium, Nora & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Participation in Organized Sports and Self-Organized Physical Activity: Associations with Developmental Factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH). ISSN 1661-7827. 16(4). doi: 10.3390/ijerph16040585. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Engagement in organized sports is associated with developmental factors, such as, healthy growth, cognitive abilities, psychological well-being and lower substance use. Research also suggest that the spontaneous free play that characterises self-organized physical activity (PA) provides young people with opportunities to learn social skills, such as self-regulation and conflict-resolution skills. We assessed associations between participation in the two activity types and several demographics along with developmental factors (e.g., body mass index (BMI)). Data was from a representative sample of 2060 students attending 38 schools in Norway (mean age (Mage) = 15.29, standard deviation (SD) = 1.51; 52% females). Results indicated that while engagement in organized sports was more related to developmental factors, relative to self-organized PA, engaging concurrently in both activities for at least an hour a week was more developmentally beneficial than engaging only in one for the same amount of time. Thus, PA programmes for students will enhance their effectiveness if they focus on structured activities but also self-organized activities where students can coordinate themselves.

• Mikalsen, Hilde Kristin; Lagestad, Pål Arild; Bentzen, Marte & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Does eagerness for physical activity matter? The association between eagerness and physical activity among adoledcents. Frontiers in Public Health. ISSN 2296-2565. 7. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2019.00088. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigated the association between perceived parental support and eagerness for physical activity (EPA) among adolescents, and the association between EPA and physical activity. We further examined whether perceived athletic competence (PAC) mediates a presumed association between EPA and physical activity level, when controlling for gender. This study included 320 adolescents (aged 12–13) from 18 schools in two medium-sized Norwegian municipalities. Questionnaires and accelerometers were assessed during spring 2017. Structural equation modeling was applied to examine the associations. Standard regression coefficients are presented. Data demonstrated that perceived parental support was positively associated with EPA (β = 0.52), and eagerness was positively associated with PAC (β = 0.52). Both EPA (β = 0.20) and PAC (β = 0.24) were also positively associated with moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). When mediating the relationship between EPA and MVPA, through PAC, the effect on MVPA increased (from β = 0.20 to β = 0.32). Analysis revealed that 87% of the adolescents fulfilled the national health recommendations for physical activity. This study highlights the relevance of EPA and PAC in studies of physical activity among adolescents, and the impact of perceived parental support for adolescents' EPA and physical activity level.

• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Haugen, Tommy; Ivarsson, Andreas & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Global Self-Worth among Adolescents: The Role of Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction in Physical Education. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. ISSN 0031-3831. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2019.1600578. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Global self-worth is important for healthy development and learning, and is therefore highlighted as a major aim in the Norwegian physical education (PE) curriculum. Based on prior research this study aimed to assess potential differences in global self-worth and contextual basic need satisfaction among 2854 adolescents (47.5% boys, 52.5% girls, ages 13 and 16) participating in different movement contexts, and to determine whether basic need satisfaction in PE relates to global self-worth. Structural equation modeling analyses indicate that basic need satisfaction in PE relates significantly to global self-worth. However, adolescents who do not participate in movement contexts outside school report significantly lower basic need satisfaction in PE compared to their sports-active peers, and could possibly therefore experience reduced global self-worth development through PE. Findings support research showing that sports active youth reap most of the benefits of PE, and thus, that PE violates the principles of equal education.

• Myrseth, Helga; Hystad, Sigurd William; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Olsen, Olav Kjellevold (2018). Perception of specific military skills – the impact of perfectionism and self-efficacy. Journal of Military Studies. ISSN 2242-3524. doi: 10.2478/jms-2018-0002. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We investigated the development of specific military skills in Norwegian cadets during the three-year military academy training as well as the impact of perfectionism and self-efficacy on the development of these skills. Latent growth-curve models were performed with perfectionism as a time-invariant predictor and with self-efficacy as a time-varying predictor. There were significant increases in the Individual Coping Capacity (ICC) and Cooperation in Difficult Situations (CDS) subscales but not in the Motivation to Achievement (MA) subscale. The initial skill levels were not related to the growth of the skills. Both adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism predicted initial values of ICC and CDS, explaining 5% of the variance in the initial ICC levels and 12% of the variance in the initial CDS levels. Perfectionism variables did not explain the development of the three types of military skills over time. Moreover, self-efficacy significantly predicted ICC at all time points and CDS and MA at all time points except at T3. We therefore concluded that cadets with high adaptive perfectionism scores are likely to have higher initial skill levels and that self-efficacious cadets are expected to show a greater development of military skills during military academy training.

• Boe, Ole; Säfvenbom, Reidar; Johansen, Rino Bandlitz & Buch, Robert (2018). The relationship between self-concept, self-efficacy, and military skills and abilities. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (ILJTER). ISSN 1694-2493. 17(10), p. 18–42. doi: 10.26803/ijlter.17.10.2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigated the relationship between academic self-concept, academic self-efficacy and the self-reported acquirement of certain specific military skills and abilities. Our sample consisted of 141 military cadets from the Norwegian Military Academy (Army), the Royal Norwegian Naval Academy, and the Royal Norwegian Air Force Academy. Supporting our hypotheses, it was found that perceived academic self-concept related positively to self-efficacy, after controlling for initial levels of self-efficacy, and that self-efficacy relates positively to self-reported Individual Coping Capacity (ICC), Cooperation in Difficult Situations (CDS), and Motivation to Achievement (MA), this after controlling for the initial levels of these Military Skills and Abilities (MSA). We discuss the implications of these findings. Keywords: self-concept; self-efficacy; military skills and

• Säfvenbom, Reidar; Wheaton, Belinda & Agans, Jennifer P. (2018). ‘How can you enjoy sports if you are under control by others?’ Self-organized lifestyle sports and youth development. Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Politics. ISSN 1743-0437. 21(12), p. 1990–2009. doi: 10.1080/17430437.2018.1472242. Show summary

  While research shows a positive association between participation in organized sports and youth development, research on alternative and unorganized sport settings is lacking. This paper analyzes developmental processes in a sample of unorganized lifestyle sport contexts, drawing on a Relational Developmental Systems approach to human development. Based on observation and interviews with young practitioners in four lifestyle sport contexts, we found many similarities in these contexts and the possibilities they offered for youth development. Results suggest the contexts studied should not be considered unorganized but self-organized. These contexts may support positive development, not in spite of, but because of the lack of strict rules, formal leaders or a priori performance goals. The studied contexts are understood as embracing and tolerant, yet not accessible for all. Self-organized lifestyle sport contexts need more detailed research to understand how they can provide opportunities for positive development among some hard to reach groups.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar; Buch, Robert & Aandstad, Anders (2017). Eagerness for Physical Activity Scale: Theoretical background and validation. Applied Developmental Science. ISSN 1088-8691. 21(3), p. 184–199. doi: 10.1080/10888691.2016.1184095. Show summary

  The Eagerness for Physical Activity Scale (EPAS) validated in this study is based on the belief that eagerness for physical activity should be seen as a major outcome of interventions and physical activity contexts. The aim of the study was to introduce the concept of eagerness into physical activity research, to validate EPAS, and to explore its relationship with maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and motivation. A multi-study validation approach was used. Convergent and discriminant validity was supported and the scale displayed high internal consistency across all studies. When controlling for self-determined motivation, eagerness for physical activity related positively to VO2max, thus supporting incremental validity above and beyond intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, extrinsic regulation, and a-motivation. Based on our results we recommend not only the application of EPAS in the assessment of how intervention programs and regular types of activity contexts affect people of all ages, but also the introduction of the concept of eagerness into physical activity and health research and policy in general.

• Buch, Robert; Nerstad, Christina G. L. & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2017). The interactive roles of mastery climate and performance climate in predicting intrinsic motivation. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. ISSN 0905-7188. 27(2), p. 245–253. doi: 10.1111/sms.12634. Show summary

  This study examined the interplay between perceived mastery and performance climates in predicting increased intrinsic motivation. The results of a two-wave longitudinal study comprising of 141 individuals from three military academies revealed a positive relationship between a perceived mastery climate and increased intrinsic motivation only for individuals who perceived a low performance climate. This finding suggests a positive relationship between a perceived mastery climate and increased intrinsic motivation only when combined with low perceptions of a performance climate. Hence, introducing a performance climate in addition to a mastery climate can be an undermining motivational strategy, as it attenuates the positive relationship between a mastery climate and increased intrinsic motivation. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

• Buch, Robert; Dysvik, Anders; Kuvaas, Bård & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2016). The Relationship Between Mastery Orientation and Maximal Oxygen Uptake Among Military Cadets: The Mediating Role of Intrinsic Motivation. Military Behavioral Health. ISSN 2163-5781. 4(4), p. 398–408. doi: 10.1080/21635781.2016.1187099. Show summary

  Drawing upon achievement goal theory (AGT) and self-determination theory (SDT), a longitudinal study was conducted among 248 military cadets across a two-year time span. The results showed that mastery orientation at Time 1 was positively associated with intrinsic motivation at Time 2 after controlling for intrinsic motivation at Time 1. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation assessed at Time 2 was positively associated with maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) at Time 3 after controlling for VO2 max at Time 2. This suggests that military cadets who strive to improve their personal performance (i.e., mastery-oriented individuals) are more likely to exhibit an increase in their level of VO2 max and that this increase can be attributed to increased intrinsic motivation.

• Fosse, Thomas Hol; Buch, Robert; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Martinussen, Monica (2015). The impact of personality and self-efficacy on academic and military performance: The mediating role of self-efficacy. Journal of Military Studies. ISSN 2242-3524. 6(1). doi: 10.1515/jms-2016-0197. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In order to optimize recruitment and the overall outcome of educational programmes, it is crucial to understand personal determinants of achievement. While several cognitive abilities and skills individually predict performance in academic and professional settings, it is less clear how personality translates into performance. This study addresses the impact of the Big Five personality trait, conscientiousness, on academic performance and instructor performance ratings and examines the mediating role of selfefficacy. Analysis of longitudinal data (Time 1: n = 166 (conscientiousness); Time 2: n = 161 (self-efficacy); Time 3: n = 136 (military performance) and n = 156 (academic performance)) from three military academies in Norway showed that conscientiousness was related to both military and academic performance. Moreover, self-efficacy emerged as a partial mediator for the relationship between conscientiousness and performance.

• Hystad, Sigurd William; Olsen, Olav Kjellevold; Espevik, Roar & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2015). On the stability of psychological hardiness: A three-year longitudinal study. Military Psychology. ISSN 0899-5605. 27(3), p. 155–168. doi: 10.1037/mil0000069. Show summary

  More than 30 years of research has established psychological hardiness as an important individual resiliency resource. One important question still remaining is whether psychological hardiness can be trained. The present study explored this question longitudinally within the context of a 3-year military academy training program. Cadets from 3 different Norwegian military academies (N = 293) completed hardiness questionnaires during the first week of their training, and then again at the end of each year, resulting in a total of 4 waves of data. Using hierarchical linear modeling, no statistically significant effect of time on hardiness scores was found. The nonsignificant growth parameter was examined further using Bayesian statistics as an indicator of the relative evidence for the null hypothesis of no change over time versus the alternative hypothesis of change. The resulting Bayes factor provided substantial support in our data for the null hypothesis of no hardiness development during the 3-year officer training programs.

• Buch, Robert; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Boe, Ole (2015). The Relationships Between Academic Self-Efficacy, Intrinsic Motivation, and Perceived Competence. Journal of Military Studies. ISSN 2242-3524. 6(1), p. 1–17. doi: 10.1515/jms-2016-0195. Show summary

  This study investigated the moderating role of intrinsic motivation for military studies on the relationship between academic self-efficacy and change in perceived military competence. We present two concurrent hypotheses based on theoretical interaction effects of intrinsic motivation. Data from 245 cadets from three military academies revealed a positive relationship between self-efficacy and an increase in perceived military competence only for cadets with lower levels of intrinsic motivation. This suggests that, with lower intrinsic motivation, beliefs about one’s capabilities to organize and take courses of action to attain certain goals may make a crucial difference in cadets’ compliance to exert effort to increase their military competence. In contrast, self-efficacy seems less important for increased perception of military competence in cadets with higher intrinsic motivation. These cadets probably increase their military competence mainly as a result of the pleasure they gain when performing educational activities. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

• Buch, Robert; Nerstad, Christina G. L.; Aandstad, Anders & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2015). Exploring the interplay between the motivational climate and goal orientation in predicting maximal oxygen uptake. Journal of Sports Sciences. ISSN 0264-0414. 34(3), p. 267–277. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1048522. Show summary

  Drawing upon achievement goal theory, this study explored the interplay between the perceived motivational climate, achievement goals and objective measurements of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). The results of a study of 123 individuals from three Norwegian military academies revealed that under the condition of a high-performance orientation there is a stronger positive relationship between performance climate and VO2max for individuals reporting a low (rather than high)-mastery orientation. Furthermore, we found that for individuals with a high-mastery orientation there is a stronger positive relationship between mastery climate and VO2max for individuals reporting a low (rather than high)-performance orientation. These findings contribute to achievement goal theory by providing support for an interactionist person–environment fit perspective. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

• Breivik, Gunnar; Buch, Robert & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2015). Performance Orientation and Injury Among Military Cadets: The Mediating Role of Disinhibition. Military Behavioral Health. ISSN 2163-5781. 3(1), p. 29–36. doi: 10.1080/21635781.2014.995248. Show summary

  This study examined the mediating role of disinhibition (sensation seeking) on the positive association between performance goal orientation (achievement motivation) and risk of sustaining injury. Our study comprised 248 cadets from three military academies. In support of our hypotheses, we found a positive relationship between performance goal orientation and risk of sustaining injury and that this relationship was mediated by disinhibition. This finding contributes to the extant achievement goal theory literature by demonstrating a mechanism through which performance orientation relates to the likelihood of sustaining an injury. Theoretical and practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar; Haugen, Tommy & Bulie, Marte (2015). Attitudes toward and motivation for PE. Who collects the benefits of the subject? Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy. ISSN 1740-8989. 20(6), p. 629–646. doi: 10.1080/17408989.2014.892063. Show summary

  Background and purpose: Due to attitudinal and motivational aims in the national curriculum, and to lack of research on adolescents' experiences with physical education (PE) in Norway, the purposes of this study were to (1) attain data on attitudes toward PE and self-determined motivation for PE among a representative sample of adolescents (N = 2010) in middle school (grade 8–10/age 13–15) and high school (grade 11–13/age 16–19) in Norway, and (2) to explore the relationship between involvement in movement activities outside school and self-determined motivation in PE. Findings: The results showed that 43% of the adolescents were not happy with how PE is taught in Norwegian schools, and that the variance in motivational regulations among students was substantial. Females reported a less positive attitude toward PE compared to males, and positive attitude tends to decrease with age for both sexes, both of which go against the intentions stated in the Norwegian core curriculum and in the PE-curriculum. However, the results showed that adolescents who reported involvement in organized competitive youth sports outside school reported significantly higher scores on attitude to PE and on self-determined motivation for PE compared to those who were not, even when eagerness to be involved in movement activity was controlled for. The results indicate that it is not gender per se that differentiates females from males with regard to self-determined motivation in PE, but rather their experience with competitive youth sports. Conclusions: The study concludes that PE in Norway seems to favor students, and female students in particular, who are involved in competitive youth sports. Based on the results, it is hypothesized that PE coincides with the logic of competitive youth sports, that youth sport participants reap most of the benefits of PE, and thus, that PE may produce social inequity in health. In accordance with proposals from Van den Berghe et al., the results on motivation in particular are integrated in a broader pedagogical discussion. It is claimed that PE is experienced in context, and that research on adolescents' experiences of PE, and thus development through PE, should be approached from a relational developmental systems perspective.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar; Geldhof, G. John & Haugen, Tommy (2014). Sports clubs as accessible developmental assets for all? Adolescents’ assessment of egalitarianism vs. elitism in sport clubs vs. school. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics. ISSN 1940-6940. 6(3), p. 443–457. doi: 10.1080/19406940.2013.815255. Show summary

  School and sport clubs are considered important public institutions in the nationwide scaffolding of developmental assets for adolescents. However, external assets’ impact on individuals’ internal assets is not given and developmental institutions do not necessarily function as the society would like to believe. Previous qualitative studies from Norway indicate that organized youth sport appears as competitive and exclusive and the purpose of the present study was therefore to assess a national sample of adolescents’ perceptions of their local sports clubs in terms of egalitarianism (inclusiveness) and elitism (exclusiveness). A comparison with their assessments of their local school was performed. This study offers a youth development perspective on personal experience, and a sociological sport policy perspective focusing on sports for all. A sample of Norwegian adolescents’ (N ¼ 2055) appraisal of their local school and sports club was assessed and the results showed no significant cross-domain difference between the two institutions regarding the perception of egalitarianism/inclusiveness. However, the adolescents rated the sports club as significantly more elitist and thus more exclusive compared to schools. The perception of inclusiveness was positively related to a measure of parenting quality while the perception of sports clubs as elitist was positively related to age among girls, but not among boys. The results confirm an incongruity between the Norwegian ‘sport for all’ policy and adolescents’ assessment of their local sports club, and this article questions the use of democratic and egalitarian rhetoric in sports policy documents emphasizing the concepts as democracy, loyalty, equality, community, health, integrity and tolerance.

• Næss, Harald Solhaug; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Standal, Øyvind Førland (2014). Running with Dewey: is it possible to learn to enjoy running in High School Physical Education? Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health. ISSN 2159-676X. 6(2), p. 301–315. doi: 10.1080/2159676X.2013.796489. Show summary

  This study is based on an action research project labelled ‘Running with Dewey’ implemented in a second-year High School Physical Education (PE) class. The purpose of the project was to analyse students’ response to a running programme based on experiential learning. Eight students participated in alternative PE for 8 weeks. The action research project facilitated an autonomy supportive and reflection supportive climate, where students were individually given the freedom to choose their own form of running, and reflect on questions concerning the experience of running after each lesson. The data collection consists of participant observation and in-depth interviews. The findings show that many students have experienced running in PE as primarily unenjoyable. The education has to large extent been based on teacher instruction with no possibilities for individual involvement in, choice of, or reflection on the experience. Due to the possibility to choose a form of running they like, the students appreciated the autonomy supportive climate in the project. There are large individual differences in what form of running the different students prefer. The findings indicate that when personal needs guide the form of running, and the students are encouraged to reflect upon their experience, the students experience the running as more enjoyable.

• Agans, Jennifer P.; Säfvenbom, Reidar; Davis, Jacqueline L.; Bowers, Edmond P. & Lerner, Richard M. (2013). Positive Movement Experiences: Approaching the Study of Athletic Participation, Exercise, and Leisure Activity through Relational Developmental Systems Theory and the Concept of Embodiment. Advances in Child Development and Behavior. ISSN 0065-2407. 45, p. 261–286. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-397946-9.00010-5. Show summary

  Exercise and athletic participation are widely recognized as important aspects of healthy lifestyles and human development; yet most of the research on youth athletic participation, exercise, and leisure activity has not yet adopted a theoretical framework useful for understanding the development of individual engagement with these movement contexts. In order to gain an adequate understanding of the developmental experiences of involvement in movement contexts, understanding the role of the active individual and the mutually influential relations between individual and context are important. In this chapter, we present a new approach to the study of involvement in movement contexts, using relational developmental systems theory and the concept of embodiment to forward the idea of positive movement experiences (PMEs). The concept of PMEs may facilitate better understanding of involvement in movement contexts as a fundamental component of human life in general, and of youth development in particular.

• Haugen, Tommy; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Ommundsen, Yngvar (2013). Sport Participation and Loneliness in Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Perceived Social Competence. Current Psychology. ISSN 1046-1310. 32(2), p. 203–216. doi: 10.1007/s12144-013-9174-5. Show summary

  Young people perceive loneliness as a distressing emotional experience associated with sadness and boredom. Also, feelings of loneliness may be associated with psychosocial and emotional problems during adolescence. The aim of this study was to investigate whether perceived social competence mediated the cross-sectional relationship between sport participation and loneliness in young people when controlling for age, sex, shyness, and non-organized physical activity. This cross-sectional study consisted of 2,055 pupils (995 boys and 1,060 girls) from 38 schools in Norway, with a mean age of 15.3 years. In addition to normal theory regression procedures, bootstrapping techniques were used to test the hypothesized indirect effect. Findings revealed that sport participation was inversely associated with loneliness mediated by perceived social competence. This indirect effect was evident when controlling for age, sex, non-organized physical activity and shyness. Findings suggest that sport participation during adolescence is indirectly associated with lower level of loneliness through higher level of perceived social competence. One may argue that sport participation during adolescence can contain important social components that help meet young peoples’ social needs and expectations, which in turn may prevent feelings of loneliness.

• Skirstad, Berit; Waddington, Ivan & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2012). Issues and problems in the organization of children’s sport: A case study of Norway. European Physical Education Review. ISSN 1356-336X. 18(3), p. 309–321. doi: 10.1177/1356336X12450790. Show summary

  The focus of this article is on the organization of children’s sport in Norway. More specifically, the paper sets out to examine (i) the changing pattern of relationships, and in particular the changing balance of conflict and cooperation, between the several organizations with responsibility for children’s sport, and (ii) how sport for children is regulated in order to protect children against the dangers associated with competitive pressures, overspecialization and burnout. These questions are answered by tracing the key policy changes and initiatives in relation to children’s sport. With reference to the organization of children’s sport, the ideological struggles between schools and sport organizations over the nature and objectives of sport and physical activity are traced from the 1950s through to recent attempts to promote an Active Sports policy, which represent possible partnerships between several governmental ministries (culture, health and education), schools, and sport clubs. With reference to protecting children against competitive pressures and early overspecialization, the article traces the development from the first advisory guidelines for children’s sporting participation through to mandatory regulations and finally to the recognition of children’s rights in sport.

• Haugen, Tommy; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Ommundsen, Yngvar (2011). Physical activity and global self-worth: The role of physical self-esteem indices and gender. Mental Health and Physical Activity. ISSN 1755-2966. 4(2), p. 49–56. doi: 10.1016/j.mhpa.2011.07.001. Show summary

  Purpose The aim of this study was: a) to investigate mediating influences of body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation and perceived athletic competence in the relationship between physical activity and global self-worth, controlling for contextual variations in physical activity; b) to investigate the relative magnitude of the specific indirect effects; c) to investigate whether gender moderates the mediating influences of body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation and perceived athletic competence. Methods This is a cross-sectional study consisting of 2055 adolescents (995 boys and 1060 girls) from ages 13 to 18 (mean age 15.3 years) from 38 different Norwegian schools, stratified according to school-level and geographical area. In addition to normal theory linear regression procedures, a bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrapping technique was used to measure both indirect and conditional indirect effects. Results Results revealed that body areas satisfaction, appearance evaluation and athletic competence operated as three unique mediators, thus supporting a hypothesized model of the positive effect of physical activity on global self-worth through physical self-esteem indices. Inspection of moderation effect by gender revealed that the effect of physical activity level on global self-worth through physical appearance was stronger in female adolescents than in males. Conclusions According to the investigated model, increased levels of physical activity may be beneficial for global self-worth in male and female adolescents by enhancing their perceptions of physical self-esteem. Additionally, the influence of physical appearance on global self-worth is stronger for females than for males.

• Skille, Eivind Åsrum & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2011). Sport policy in Norway. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics. ISSN 1940-6940. 3(2), p. 289–299. doi: 10.1080/19406940.2010.547867. Show summary

  Norwegian sport policy and organization leans on a historically developed model of the division of labour between public authorities and voluntary sport organizations. State policy for sport is administered by the Department of Sport Policy in the Ministry of Cultural Affairs. The state funds sport facilities and supports voluntary sport organizations. It articulates various justifications for supporting sport, which relate to health, education and culture. The voluntary sport sector consists of the umbrella organization – The Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports – and its network of national special sport organizations, district sport organizations, regional special sport organizations, local sport councils and over 12,000 sport clubs. The vast majority of the work in sport clubs is voluntarily conducted. The established form of organization and the autonomy of the sport clubs create challenges for the implementation of sport policies. The state lacks adequate policy tools to use to assist in the implementation of its various policy goals through the voluntary system. In that respect, it is suggested that future directions for sport policy should build on a better understanding of (1) the local sport clubs providing sport activities and (2) youth – often the target group for policy intervention.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2010). Om å lede de unge ut i fristelse : og det gode liv, Aktive liv. Idrettspedagogiske perspektiver på kropp, bevegelse og dannelse. Tapir Akademisk Forlag. ISSN 978-82-519-2620-1. p. 155–173.
• Høgseth, Steinar; Moe, Jan Erik & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Å være utholdende. In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. p. 257–265.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Atferd og utvikling - en generell introduksjon. In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. p. 85–94.
• Høgseth, Steinar; Moe, Jan Erik & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Å være utholdende. In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi : i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215012445. p. 257–265.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Bevegelsesatferd og motivasjon i militære kontekster. In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi : i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215012445. p. 122–135.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Atferd og utvikling : en generell introduksjon. In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi : i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215012445. p. 85–93.
• Sookermany, Anders McD & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Fra "fysisk fostring" til "kropp, bevegelse og energi". In Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (Ed.), Kropp, bevegelse og energi : i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215012445. p. 19–33.
• Høigaard, Rune; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Tønnessen, Finn Egil (2006). The relationship between group cohesion, group norms and perceived social loafing in soccer teams. Small Group Research. ISSN 1046-4964. 37(3), p. 217–232. Show summary

  The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between group cohesion, group norms, and perceived social loafing among 118 soccer players playing junior league in Norway. Each player completed a questionnaire assessing group cohesion (task cohesion and social cohesion), team norms (productive norms, role involvement, and social support norms), and perceived social loafing. As predicted, all cohesion- and team-norm subscales were negatively correlated with perceived social loafing. Furthermore, the results showed that the players' attraction to their team's task as well as their perception of the productive- and social-support norm predicted perceptions of social loafing. A significant three-way interaction between task cohesion, social cohesion, and performance norm emerged. The analysis showed that the combination of high social cohesion, low task cohesion, and low team norms seems to underlie perceptions of social loafing.

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• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (2008). 2008. Universitetsforlaget. 324 p.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McDonald (2008). Kropp, bevegelse og energi i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. 10 p.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (2008). Kropp, bevegelse og energi : i den grunnleggende soldatutdanningen. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 9788215012445. 324 p.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2005). Fritid og aktiviteter i moderne oppvekst Grunnbok i aktivitetsfag. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 8215006094. 279 p. Show summary

  Denne grunnboka i aktivitetsfag viser hvordan fritidskontekster kan være pedagogiske tumleplasser i arbeid med barn og unge. Det presenteres ulike psykologiske og sosiologiske perspektiver på fritid og fritidens betydning i den menneskelige utvikling, og det synliggjøres hvilke arenaer og pedagogiske verktøy som er sentrale, hvordan involveringsprosessen bør være og hvilke konsekvenser dette får for miljøarbeidet. I bokas siste del knyttes teori og didaktikk sammen i fritidsaktivitetene musikk, drama, nettaktivitet, film, friluftsliv, fysisk aktivitet og motor. Boka er skrevet for studenter og yrkesgrupper som arbeider med barn og unge, oppvekst og utvikling.

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• Leirhaug, Petter Erik; Eide, Lars Harald & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2021). Profesjonalitet hos lærere i kroppsøving og idrettsfag ved skolenedstengingen 12. mars 2020.
• Leirhaug, Petter Erik; Eide, Lars Harald & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2021). Profesjonalitet hos lærere i kroppsøving og idrettsfag ved skolenedstengingen 12. mars 2020.
• Østerlie, Ove & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2020). [Podcast, krø.no] Attitudes toward and motivation for PE: Who collects the benefits of the subject? [Internet]. www.krø.no.
• Mikalsen, Hilde Kristin; Lagestad, Pål Arild; Bentzen, Marte & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Does eagerness for physical activity matter?
• Løvoll, Helga Synnevåg; Bentzen, Marte & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Development of positive emotions in physical education in association with motivation: A person-centered approach .
• Nerstad, Christina G. L.; Buch, Robert & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2019). Goal Orientation and Perceived Motivational Climate: A Longitudinal Perspective.
• Åvitsland, Andreas; Säfvenbom, Reidar; Tjomsland, Hege Eikeland; Kolle, Elin; Resaland, Geir Kåre & Berntsen, Sveinung [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2019). A new approach to school time physical activity: The "Don't worry, be happy" intervention model.
• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Haugen, Tommy; Ivarsson, Andreas & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2018). Utvikling av grunnleggende psykologisk behovstilfredsstillelse i kroppsøving: Effekter av en toårig intervensjon.
• Løvoll, Helga Synnevåg; Bentzen, Marte & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2017). Enhanced understanding of differences in development of positive emotions among adoescents in physical education over 3-years: A person-centered approach.
• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Haugen, Tommy; Ivarsson, Andreas & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2017). Development of Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction in Physical Education: Effects from a two-year intervention.
• Løvoll, Helga Synnevåg; Bentzen, Marte & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2017). Gutter har mer positive følelser i kroppsøving enn jenter.
• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Säfvenbom, Reidar; Husebye, Birgitte Nordahl & Moen, Kjersti Mordal (2016). Elevers erfaringer med interessebasert kroppsøving: En kvalitativ studie .
• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Haugen, Tommy & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2015). Self-worth among adolescents: The contribution of need satisfaction in Physical Education and other movement contexts .
• Erdvik, Irina Burchard; Haugen, Tommy & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2015). Selvaktelse blant ungdom: Betydningen av å få tilfredsstilt grunnleggende psykologiske behov kroppsøving og to andre bevegelseskontekster.
• Næss, Harald Solhaug & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2014). Går det an å lære å like å løpe? Kroppsøving. ISSN 0333-0141. 64(1), p. 8–9.
• Keinanen, Mia O. & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2012). Learning skills through YouTube and Social Media.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2012). Flere glade 15-åringer i bevegelse? Behovet for positive ungdomsutviklingsmodeller framfor medisinske mangelmodeller.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2012). La de unge lede oss ut i fristelse. Om fritid, positiv ungdomsutvikling og det gode liv.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2012). What’s in it for me? Lifestyle sports and positive youth development. Show summary

  As an extension of relational developmental systems theories on human development (Overton, 2010), theories on Positive Youth Development (PYD) have grown during the last decade (Lerner, et al., 2011). PYD-theory is concerned about outcome variables indicating thriving adolescents, yet first of all emphasizes the developmental process in terms of developmental regulation across ontogeny, integrated actions, relative plasticity, and thus optimism. According to the theory, the potential for plasticity at both individual and contextual levels constitutes a fundamental strength of all human’s development (Silbereisen & Lerner, 2007). Based on in-depth interviews with three young lifestyle activity practitioners (longboarding, tricking and skydiving) and their experiences from both organized, traditional sports promoted by local sports clubs and more-or-less self-organized lifestyle activities, lifestyle activity contexts are discussed as developmental assets for youth. According to the adolescents’ reflections on the magnitude of relative plasticity in traditional sports versus lifestyle sports, it is argued that traditional sports and lifestyle sports reveal adolescents’ potentials differently, and that traditional sports often conceal more than they reveal about human potential. The paper claims that (1) if policy makers are concerned with improving life chances (e.g. lifetime activity alignment) of diverse youth, youth has to be viewed as resources to be developed and not as problems to be managed (Silbereisen & Lerner 2007: 7) and (2) if we really want to see more happy adolescents involved in movement activities, contexts based on non-traditional, new, explorative, lifestyle activities should be supported and funded at the same level as traditional sports (Säfvenbom et al., in rev).

• Solhaug Næss, Harald; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Førland Standal, Øyvind (2012). Er det mulig å lære å like å løpe?
• Bulie, Marte; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Haugen, Tommy (2012). Motivasjon for fysisk aktivitet. Hvilken rolle spiller aktivitetskontekstene?
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2012). Positiv ungdomsutvikling, livsstilaktiviteter og kroppsøving.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar; Bulie, Marte & Haugen, Tommy (2012). Trivsel og motivasjon i kroppsøvingstimen. Hvorfor hater Lise gym?
• Keinänen, Mia & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2011). Learning a Physical Skill through Informal Peer-to-Peer Learning Online. A case of self-organized lifestyle sports youth group in Oslo Norway.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2011). What's in it for me? Modern youth and their thoughts about serving their country.
• Aandstad, Anders; Sookermany, Anders McD & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2010). The Cadet Development Study - A longitudinal interdisciplinary study on Norwegian cadets. Moving soldiers - Soldaten i bevegelse. ISSN 1891-8751. p. 55–55.
• Aandstad, Anders; Sookermany, Anders McD & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2010). The cadet development study - A longitudinal interdisiciplinary study on Nowregian cadets.
• Aandstad, Anders; Hageberg, Rune & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Change in physical fitness in male military cadets during first year attendance at the Royal Norwegian Air Force Academy.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2008). Å takle tiden som er til overs. Aktuelt for kriminalomsorgen. ISSN 0803-6438. p. 3–6.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Engelsrud, Gunn (2008). Gutter og jenter sammen i gym. ?.
• Miller, Blake W.; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (2006). Depressive symptoms, physical activity, and active military personnel: A self-determination theory perspective. Show summary

  Physical activity (i.e., exercise) is arguably an important part of a military personnel?s lifestyle. Be it obligatory (on-duty), or voluntary (off-duty), physical activity is desired for this population for a number of reasons (Sookermany, 2005). One such reason may be to enhance one?s personal outlook on life. The aim of the present study was to examine the prediction of depressive symptoms using self determined motivation toward physical activity among active military personnel. Participants were 2163 (males, n=2060; females, n=103; age range 18-61 years) active Norwegian military personnel. To examine participants? depressive symptoms a measure designed by Vassend and colleagues (1992) was employed. This measure examines depressive symptoms by way of employing five distinct questions responded to in respect to the stem ?have you in the past two weeks felt affected by the following?, with example questions being ?afraid or anxious? and ?nervousness or instability?. Responses were anchored on a 4 pt Likert type scale from 1 ?not affected? to 4 ?very affected?. A sum score for responses to the depressive symptoms questions was computed to represent this variable for further analysis. Self-determined motivation toward physical activity was measured by the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay et al., 2000), which measures four dimensions of less to more regulated motivation towards physical activity, namely intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and amotivation. The SIMS was responded to in respect to two differing contexts separately, one being on active military duty and the other off duty. To examine the predictability of the motivational dimensions towards depressive symptoms, simultaneous multiple regression analyses were conducted for both motivation toward exercise on and off-duty separately as predictors. Results of the on-duty regression model revealed a significant overall statistic, F(4, 20737) = 5.42, p<.001, R=.19, with external regulation (t =3.35; p <.001) and amotivation (t =3.78; p <.001) positively predicting depressive symptoms. In contrast, results of the off-duty regression model, F(4, 7952) = 2.13, p<.001, R=.12, revealed intrinsic motivation (t value=-2.50; p<.05) to negatively predict while amotivation (t value=3.38; p<.001) to positively predict depressive symptoms, respectively. Results are discussed in respect to how physical activity contexts less prescribed and restrictive may be influential of more than just more or less self-determined motivation.

• Miller, Blake W.; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (2006). Depressive symptoms, physical activity, and active military personnel: A self-determination theory perspective.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Aandstad, Anders (2006). Living like a civilian ? acting like a Military: Determinants of physical activity among Norwegian Home Guard Soldiers. Show summary

  Physical ability among all military personnel is more or less dependent on the personnel?s daily life style outside service. Their physical capacity in professional situations is not only dependent on what they have done during their daily work, yet also to some extent dependent on what they have been doing during their non-professional free time at evenings, on Sundays, on vacation etc. For Reservists this relative dependency seems to be obvious. Unless Reservists, who act in a Military settings less than 3 % of the year and work and live like civilians the remaining 97 % of the year, receive support for physical activity or in other ways are affected by the Military to stay active, their physical activity level is probably determined by intrapersonal variables, social variables and physical environmental variables which is out of the Military system?s control. This paper is based on the study ?Physically Active Reservists? (PACTRES). The aim of PACTRES is to analyze determinants of physical activity and physical performance in a representative random sample of all Reservists in Norway (n=4000). The data will be collected during May/June 2006 and the paper will present preliminary results of the study. Based on the data and well documented literature it will be discussed whether or not Military leaders in some way have to influence the activity level of military personnel outside service, and eventually how this can be performed.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2006). The Benefits of Sport: What is CISM delegates? opinion? Show summary

  Individual benefits, national benefits and international benefits of sports have been thoroughly discussed within the sports literature. At the individual level most attention has been paid to individuals? participation in sport, and the physical, emotional, social and educational effects of this involvement. At the national level sport and physical activity has been linked to the development of public health, military defense, national identity, yet also to the development of democracy and social integration. At the world scene (the international level) benefits of sport most often has been associated with the Fundamental Principles of Olympism and international top level sport events. The sociology of sport has during the last decades expressed a concern for the future of sport both as an actual practice and as cultural phenomenon. In Tännsjö?s and Tamburrini?s book ?Values in Sport? (2000) Tännsjö questions the admiration of the strongest and (as far as he argues) the contempt for weakness, and he questions a rather unbalanced admiration of individual athletic heroes (who some times are disclosed as cheaters). Compared to his contemporary researchers he argues more explicit that the play at the Olympic arena reinforces an unhealthy nationalism in the world wide audience. Tännsjö is deeply criticized by his colleagues who argue that sport nationalism is a rather innocent sort of patriotism and that it should be considered as a positive replacement for more doubtful versions of political nationalism. The concern for the development of top level sports at the international arena indicates a concern for the future of sport at national levels as well as within local contexts. If the basic values of sports are threatened and, as a consequence of this threat, are about to shift, it will influence not only the sports itself, yet also how sport should be used in education of children, students, soldiers etc. According to the literature it seems to be reason to argue that sport as a cultural phenomenon is far from being morally innocent and that this may call for awareness. Also within CISM at least three significant questions should to be asked: ? Is there a need to be even more aware of the negative aspects of the modern sport? ? Can critical arguments against the development of sport be abandoned with reference to ethical principles developed several decades or even millenniums ago or do we have to raise better arguments? ? Do we need to protect the positive potential within the sports context, and if so, how do we need to act? The paper will be based on a critical perspective on the development of sport in the western society. It will discuss the possible consequences of this development regarding the use of sport and physical activity within the military system. In addition the paper will present results from a study of CISM delegates?s personal apprehension of the values in sport; their personal perception of benefits of sport and physical activity in society as well as in Military settings (collected in Roma - May, 2006).

• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2005). Fritid og aktiviteter i moderne oppvekst.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2005). Fysisk aktivitet og sosial distinksjon.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2005). Er dagens unge blitt feite og late?
• Säfvenbom, Reidar; Sookermany, Anders McD & Miller, Blake W. (2005). Self-determination, intrinsic motivation and physical activity. Show summary

  INTRODUCTION This paper is based on the study ?Physical Activity and Motivation among Norwegian Military Personnel. The paper presents data from military personnel?s scores on intrinsic motivation, identified motivation, external regulation and amotivation in military physical activity contexts compared to physical activity contexts outside service, in the civil every day life. According to self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) different types of motivation underlie human behaviour. The theory argues that situations promoting an external locus of causality (perception of being controlled) will deny self-determination and undermine intrinsic motivation, whereas situations that promote an internal locus of causality (perception of freedom of choice) will facilitate self-determination and intrinsic motivation. This means that physical activity settings which allow participants to influence on their own participation provide self-determination and an increased intrinsic motivation while rigid and externally determined settings likely lead to less perception of self determination and thus less intrinsic motivation. INTRODUCTION TRUNCATED! METHODS To examine personnel?s intrinsic motivation, identified motivation, external regulations and amotivation, the Situational Motivation Scale (Guay et al., 2000) was employed. The respective sub-dimensions of the measure were assessed as the following based on the stem ?why do you participate in the workouts/training sessions in service?? and on the stem ?why do you participate in the workouts/training sessions outside service?? : 1) Intrinsic motivation (e.g., because I think this activity is interesting); 2) Identified Motivation (e.g., because I am doing it for my own good); 3) External regulation (e.g., because it is expected that I do it), and 4) amotivation (e.g., I don?t know; I don?t see what this activity does for me). Responses were measured on a 7-point Likert scale from (1) completely untrue to (7) completely true. RESULTS Preliminary analyses of 2042 participants showed significant contextual differences on all four subscales. The participants? scores on intrinsic motivation were significant lower in service (m=4.66) compared to outside service (m=5.55) (p<.001) and likewise their scores on identified motivation were significant lower in service (m=5.09) compared to outside service (m= 5.84) (p < .001). On the contrary, the participants? scores on external regulations were significant higher in service (m=3.06) compared to outside service (m=1.95) and likewise, their scores on amotivation were significant higher in service (m=1.64) compared to outside service (m=1.37) (p<.001). (Final analyses will be presented in the final paper). DISCUSSION The results indicate that physical activity settings in service have a great potential regarding an increase in intrinsic motivation towards physical activity among Norwegian military personnel. The paper discusses pedagogical consequences if this increase is wanted.

• Miller, Blake W.; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (2005). Goal orientations in relation to multidimentional situational motivation among active Norwegian Military Personnel. Show summary

  Introduction: Research has indicated that intrinsic motivation is predictive of adaptive affect and behavior among youth in physical educational settings (i.e., Standage & Treasure, 2002; Vallerand, 2001). Moreover, in contexts where achievement is valued, it has been argued that a close link is likely extant between intrinsic motivation and task involvement (Nicholls, 1989; Biddle, 2001). Thus, the purpose of the present study was to extend recent research (Standage & Treasure, 2002) by examining the relationship between task and ego orientation and multidimensional situational motivation with a large sample of individuals from within a context emphasizing obligatory physical activity, namely military personnel. Methods: Participants were 2162 active Norwegian military personnel (age range: 18-76 years). Participants responded to a questionnaire containing measures designed to assess achievement goal orientations (Roberts et al., 1998), and multidimensional situational motivation (Guay et al., 2000). Factor analysis over the achievement goal measure revealed a two-factor structure accounting for 76 % total variance, with alpha coefficients for the two factors, namely a task factor and an ego factor, emerging as .81 and .92, respectively. For the multidimensional situational motivation measure, factor analysis revealed a four-factor construct that emerged representing the four dimensions hypothesized by Guay et al., namely intrinsic motivation (alpha = .93), identified regulation (alpha = .86), external regulation (alpha = .87), and lastly amotivation (alpha = .82). Results: In order to examine the relationship between task and ego orientations and the four situational motivation dimensions, we conducted a canonical correlation analysis, which revealed a significant overall correlation. Two significant functions emerged, one high task orientation and the other high ego orientation. The high task function revealed a positive association between task orientation and intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, and a negative association with amotivation. For the high ego function, positive associations emerged between ego orientation and intrinsic motivation, external regulation, and amotivation. Discussion: The present study revealed that task orientation was associated with more positive situational motivation, namely intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, and ego orientation to more negative situational motivation by means of external regulation and amotivation. However, interestingly the military personnel indicated that intrinsic motivation in physical activity contexts was also positively associated to ego orientation. This was not expected. Collectively, these findings suggest that a task orientation is key when positive aspects of situational motivation are valued, while ego orientation, in light of the aforementioned association to intrinsic motivation, was clearly more indicative of more negative aspects of situational motivation. Practical implications of our findings will be discussed in respect to achievement motivation in obligatory military physical activity settings.

• Høigaard, Rune; Skisland, Jan Oddvar; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Lillemyr, Ole Fredrik (2005). Shyness and well-being among adolescents.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2004). Hvem rekrutteres til Forsvaret - og hvorfor ?
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2003). Hva trenger vi å vite om ungdom?
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2003). "Coaching" av barn og unge.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2003). Kropsøvingsfaget i den moderne videregående skole.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2003). Med (ene)retten til å leke. Idrettens rolle i oppvekstnettverket.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar (2003). På parti med ungdomsgruppa : om premisser, mål og lojalitet i det framtidige ungdomsarbeidet.
• Kolle, Elin; Steene-Johannessen, Jostein; Säfvenbom, Reidar; Anderssen, Sigmund Alfred; Grydeland, May & Ekelund, Ulf [Show all 17 contributors for this article] (2019). Hovedrapport: School in motion. Utdanningsdirektoratet.
• Aandstad, Anders; Hageberg, Rune & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2009). HV i bevegelse. Rapport 2: Fysisk form og fysisk aktivitet i HV. Norges idrettshøgskole.
• Røe, Lene; Braut, Reidun; Kolle, Elin; Moser, Thomas; Säfvenbom, Reidar & Storheim, Kjersti (2007). Bydelens barn i bevegelse : sluttrapport 2007. Norges idrettshøgskole. Show summary

  Rapporten presenterer data som ble samlet inn i forbindelse mer intervensjonsprosjektet ?Bydelens Barn i Bevegelse? (BBB). Bakgrunnen for prosjektet var bekymring fra skolehelsetjenestens side vedrørende barnas fysiske aktivitetsnivå. Prosjektet hadde oppstart høsten 2004 blant de som da gikk i 5. og 6. klasse på Grünerløkka og Lakkegata skole, mens elever fra Møllergata skole fungerte som kontrollskole. Intervensjonen, med økt fokus på fysisk aktivitet og mer fysisk aktivitet i skolen, ble gjennomført iløpet av skoleårene 2004/2005 og 2005/2006. Rapporten presenterer resultatene fra elevenes motoriske og fysiske tester samt resultatene fra lærernes og foreldrenes spørreskjemaundersøkelse. Dataene viste ingen signifikant forskjell i utviklingen av beinmineraltetthet mellom intervensjons- og kontrollgruppen. Resultatene viste at elevene i intervensjonsgruppen hadde statistisk signifikant økning i motorikk og bevegelighet i forhold til kontrollgruppen. Det ble imidlertid ikke funnet noen signifikant forskjell i endring av elevenes koordinasjon, bukmuskulatur og utholdende ryggstyrke, utholdenhet eller fysisk aktivitetsnivå målt med aktivitetsmonitor mellom de to gruppene. Studien av foresatte viste at BBB-elevene kommer fra relativt like hjemmeforhold med hensyn til foresattes bevissthet omkring aktivitet/inaktivitet og aktivitetsnivå sammenlignet med kontrollskoleelevene. BBB-prosjektet har ikke påvirket BBB-foresattes forhold til fysisk aktivitet eller BBB-husstandenes aktivitetsnivå. BBB lærerne rapporterer mer tilrettelegging for fysisk aktivitet etter ett år i prosjektet, mer fokus på fysisk aktivitet og ikke minst hyppigere avbrudd i ordinære timer for å gjennomføre fysisk aktivitet, sammenlignet med kontrollskolelærerne.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Aandstad, Anders (2007). HV i bevegelse. Rapport 1. Kartlegging av fysisk aktivitet og determinanter for fysisk aktivitet blant norske Heimevernssoldater. Norges idrettshøgskole.
• Kolle, Elin; Storheim, Kjersti; Røe, Lene; Grydeland, May; Moser, Thomas & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2006). Bydelens barn i bevegelse : sluttrapport 2005. Norges Idrettshøgskole.
• Kolle, Elin; Berntsen, Sveinung & Säfvenbom, Reidar (2005). FRISK OG AKTIV PÅ KONGSBERG 2003-2004 En analyse av praksisprosjektet. Norges idrettshøgskole. Show summary

  I september 2003 startet prosjektet Frisk og Aktiv på Kongsberg på tre videregående skoler i Kongsberg. I forkant av den praktiske virksomheten ble elevenes fysiske form testet (utholdenhet, styrke, bevegelighet og koordinasjon), og de rapporterte også livskvalitet, trivsel, selvoppfatning, helseatferd (kost, røyk, alkohol), aktivitetsidentitet og iver etter å være fysisk aktiv (spørreskjema). Etter åtte måneder med utvidet aktivitetstilbud ble elevene testet etter samme prosedyre som ved den første testen. Utviklingen mellom de to testene ble sammenlignet med utviklingen hos elever fra Eiker videregående som representerte kontrollgruppen i studien. Resultatene som presenteres i denne rapporten viser utviklingen av Kongsberg-elever som har deltatt i prosjektet sammenlignet med utviklingen av Eiker-elever som ikke har deltatt i prosjektet. Resultatene viser at sammenlignet med kontrollgruppen har elevene som har deltatt i prosjektet utviklet bedre fysisk form gjennom skoleåret. Rapporterte mosjonsvaner endret seg positivt sammen med mindre inntak av brus og større inntak av vann, men disse endringene ble registrert også i kontrollgruppen. Elevene rapporterte imidlertid ingen positiv utvikling på de variablene som er brukt for å måle trivsel, iver, selvoppfattelse eller aktivitetsidentitet. Rapporten viser imidlertid viktige kjønnsforskjeller, den viser samvarians mellom ulike typer helseatferd og den indikerer positiv effekt av røykeforbud på skolene. Rapporten viser også at en så tung variabel som generell livskvalitet styrer opplevelse av trivsel på skolen og trivsel i kroppsøvingsfaget og videre at elevenes iver etter å være fysisk aktiv forklarer (sammen med kjønn) 70% av variansen i oksygenopptaket. Prosjektet Frisk og Aktiv på Kongsberg bør fortsette; det bør få mulighet til å utvikle seg ut fra det potensialet prosjektet har. På tross av at prosjektet har vært i en etableringsfase har prosjektet greid å utvikle den fysiske formen blant elevene som har deltatt i prosjektet. Når prosjektet blir etablert og får gå over lengre tid er det stor grunn til å tro at andre resultater også vil kunne la seg dokumentere. Frisk og Aktiv på Kongsberg som prosjekt i den videregående skole er nærmest enestående i sitt slag. En videreføring av de erfaringer som er gjort i dette første etableringsåret kan gjøre prosjektet til et modellutviklingsprosjekt som andre videregående skoler vil ha nytte av i fremtiden.

• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Sookermany, Anders McD (2005). Sport and Peace: The use of Sport and Physical Activity during Military Operations Abroad. Norges idrettshøgskole.
• Säfvenbom, Reidar & Moland Larsen, Siw-Anne (2004). IL@skolen 2002-2003. En evaluering av effekt og prosess. Norges idrettshøgskole. Show summary

  Effektundersøkelsen avdekket først og fremst en relativ stor spredning med hensyn til de unges aktivitetsvaner. Analysene viste at guttene var mer aktive enn jenter og at generell glede av å være i fysisk aktivitet påvirket den faktiske aktiviteten både på skolen og i fritiden. De som rapporterte stor glede og lyst i forbindelse med fysisk aktivitet, rapporterte også mer aktivitet. Undersøkelsen indikerte at generell glede av å være i bevegelse kan se ut til å styre både atferd og holdninger. Det er grunn til å tro at prosjektskolen som har basert sin aktivitet på obligatorisk virksomhet, har hevet aktivitetsnivået på sine elever, men at opplevelsen av glede ved å være i fysisk aktivitet samtidig har blitt redusert. Dette er betenkelig på lang sikt og bør betraktes som ett av hovedfunnene i studien. Direkte spørsmål omkring elevenes opplevelse av prosjekt IL@skolen (utført ved siste datainnsamling) bekreftet de metodiske problemene. Denne delen av studien dokumenterte en mye mer positiv holdning til prosjektet enn det som er mulig å tolke ut av det kontrollerte studiet. Resultatene indikerer at prosjektet har levd opp til intensjonene og at prosjektet har gjennomgått en positiv utvikling bare i løpet av ett år. Prosessundersøkelsen avdekket at samarbeidet mellom skole og idrettslag ble en større utfordring enn en hadde tenkt. Resultatene viste interne oppstartsproblemer på skolen og manglende handlingsvilje fra idrettslaget. Det er grunn til å tro at prosjektet har hatt størst effekt på de involverte voksne i prosjektmiljøene. Det er trolig denne gruppa som har hatt mest nytte av prosjektet i den forstand at de har utviklet mye erfaring på området. Det er grunn til å tro at potensialet som ligger i prosjektet er langt større enn det som den kontrollerte studien greier å dokumentere.

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